Hubert Foster

“ Infantry, now the principal Arm, has in modern times recovered the place which it held in the armies of the Ancient World, but lost in the Middle Ages when Horsemen were the Men-at-Arms, or the only fighting men worth considering.
Infantry has for three centuries formed the bulk of every army, being the easiest to raise and train, and the cheapest to equip and keep up, as well as the most useful, of all the Arms. On Infantry falls the brunt of the fighting, and the greatest toil in marching, while it endures the hardships of a campaign better than the mounted Arms. ”

“ Under the strain of war, whether due to danger or to privation, habits can be relied on when reason fails. Discipline is not only the instinct of obedience, but that of reliance on leaders and comrades, both factors of enormous value in battle. It is this which gives troops the advantage over a mob. Psychologically they are both “dynamic crowds,” but the mob is devoid of the higher qualities which discipline has implanted in the soldier, and which the influences of his profession have rendered largely instinctive. ”

“ At the close of the eighteenth century, during the wars brought on by the French Revolution, a great change in organization took place. France, with her old army shattered by the Revolution, was suddenly obliged to raise enormous numbers of troops to defend herself against the onslaught of Europe. When, with unparalleled courage and energy, she had stemmed the flood of invasion, a number of French armies at once took the offensive, and carried the war beyond her frontiers in every direction for the next twenty years. ”

“ The conduct of its soldiers in past wars is likely, therefore, to be repeated in future fighting, although organization, training, and leading may differ, and, to some extent, modify the result.
In the case of an Army, the necessity of Will Power in the leader cannot be too much emphasized. It is of far more importance than mere intellect. Will power alone can go far, as we see in the cases of Charles XII. and Blücher, whereas resolution is apt to be “sicklied o’er with the pale cast of thought,” where the intellect is more developed than the will. ”

“ What has been said of crowds and mobs applies in the main to the organized and trained mob which has become an army. A mass of soldiers differs from a mob mainly in the habits acquired by discipline, the facilities for action afforded by organization, and the ideal of character which their profession, and their very uniform, suggest to them to live up to. The discipline of the soldier, if it is to be worth anything in a crisis, must be so habitual as to be not reasoned, but instinctive. ”

“ When the crisis of her fate arrives, a country can only pray that a Leader may be granted her. History can teach us that England has seldom prayed in vain. Cromwell, Marlborough, Clive, Wellington, the men of the Mutiny, and, above all, the long line of Admirals which culminates in Nelson, were living answers to her prayers. ”

“ It is only in the armies of England and the United States that a complete system of inter-communication between all parts of the Army has been organized. Such a system has not been fully developed in foreign armies, but its necessity is more than ever pressing, owing to the wide dispersion of forces in war, and the need for rapid transmission of Information as to the enemy’s movements from the Front to Head-Quarters, and of Orders from the several Head-Quarters to the Troops. ”

“ ORGANIZATION IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY A Sketch of the Origin of Organization as seen in the Early Standing Armies of Europe The organization of armies in the ancient world, or in Asia in more recent times, must be regarded as beyond the scope of this work. The history of Organization will be taken up at the time when the use of firearms had begun to revolutionize fighting, and transform the feudal levies of the Middle Ages into regular armies. ”

“ The numbers of Units and of Lesser Formations grouped together, and their proportion to each other, are dictated by past experience and a forecast of future fighting requirements.
The bodies thus formed constitute what are called the Subordinate Commands of the Army. They are self-contained, and capable of independent existence and action—existence, because they have the necessary Administrative Services to supply their wants; action, because, having considerable strength, and a proper proportion of all Arms, they can fight for a certain time without support from other bodies of troops. ”

“ The example of the leader exercises a potent influence. A crowd is easily impressed by his coolness, courage, self-confidence, determination, and vigour in utterance and action, and even by his personal appearance.
Leaders are generally men who are themselves carried away by the ideas they are striving to put in effect, although some have been calculating, cool, and astute. They are generally men of action, and action impresses when reason is unavailing. One quality leaders must have, and that is Will Power. ”

“ The lesson which his practice may teach every Government engaged in war is, that while the Statesmen alone can direct all the Departments of State, and combine Navy, Army, Diplomacy, and Finance to the common end, those responsible for the actual operations must be unfettered in their decisions, and in their method of carrying them out. ”

“ Artillery is the most powerful and far-reaching of the Arms in its fire effect, but cannot act by shock. It is the only Arm that can strike the others at such a distance that they cannot retaliate, and can injure material objects. Its morale is less liable than that of the other Arms to fail13 in battle, as Artillery is more dependent on the mechanical than the human element for its action. The guns, too—to which the personnel is attached by sentiment and duty—give a definite point to hold to when other troops are falling back. ”

“ He is in close touch with his subordinate leaders, knows the condition and spirit of his men, is always among them in person to inspire and control their movements. Troops take their tone from their immediate Commander, and reflect his vigour or hesitation, his confidence or caution. An intuition of his mental attitude seems to pass through all ranks of the Command. On the other hand the Army Commanders, and still more the Commander-in-Chief, are but nebulous figures to the soldiers in a very large Army. ”

“ The action, too, of Infantry fire is limited to the range of the rifle and the effect of the bullet, so that it finds in Artillery a useful auxiliary, owing to the greater effect of fire from guns, and the distance at which they can act. Hence Infantry is greatly assisted in its fighting by associating it with Cavalry and Artillery, just as Cavalry is aided by association with Artillery. It is essential, therefore, that not only every Army, but every Body of Troops which may have to fight independently, should have a due proportion of all Arms. ”

“ It is plain that the modern aim of making organization so logical and methodical that the Staff can more easily plan operations, and write correct Orders, had little weight with Napoleon. He was himself his own Chief of the General Staff, and had a memory which no complexity could confuse. It may be a question whether modern symmetry of organization may not be really injurious to success, because highly informing to the enemy. Simplicity and symmetry are obviously useful in saving difficulties to the Staff ”

“ In organizing the Staff of any Command it is desirable to keep the number of Officers at a minimum, as not only does every appointment to the Staff weaken some fighting unit, but a better selection is possible if there are only a few appointments to fill. There will be also less difficulty in finding accommodation in the field for a small Head-Quarters, and less delay or confusion in moving it. It should not be forgotten, too, that there will not always be enough work for a large Staff to do, and that, when men are not fully occupied, mischief and friction are apt to arise. ”

“ The officers are on one Regimental List for promotion, and so serve continuously in the Regiment. They thereby acquire a camaraderie, professional feeling, and personal intimacy with each other and with their men, of the greatest value in war. In foreign armies, with short service of two years, it is hardly too much to say that the Regimental Officers really constitute the permanent army, through which there flows continuously a stream of recruits, receiving a professional impress from their officers. ”

“ In him the Will Power is more lasting, if less fiery; he can reflect, assume responsibility in cold blood, and carry out long plans in spite of opposition. The rule of such leaders over their followers is not liable to sudden collapse, but often outlives failure or ruin. Of such are those who have changed the face of the world and won undying fame—Alexander, Hannibal, Cæsar, Cromwell, Napoleon—men whose prestige is not buried in their grave, but still exercises over living men an influence hardly less real than during their life. ”

“ In War, it is not true that “in a multitude of counsellors there is wisdom.” We know that “Councils of War never fight,” and that the greatest Commanders have always regarded them as a detestable and cowardly subterfuge. Success can never be expected when, instead of the decision of one, the counsels of many prevail. ”

“ The formations in which each Arm is independently organized constitute the tactical units of an Army. Their strength and organization are intimately connected with the way in which they are used in fighting, and have varied little since armies first became regularly organized. ”

“ The system of dividing the Battalion into a few large companies was adopted in Prussia during the eighteenth century so as to economize in officers, partly to save expense, partly because of the dearth of men fit for commissions, in the increasing army of that small country. In the huge armies of to-day this system commends itself for the same reasons; while England and the United States have kept to small companies, with their original strength of about 100 men. Owing to the increasing difficulty of exercising control in battle, small companies give advantages as to Command. ”

“ Infantry can fight with its fire, at a distance from the enemy, like Artillery, as well as by shock, at close quarters, like Cavalry.
But Infantry is slow in movement, and without Cavalry cannot ascertain the operations of the enemy, and will therefore be ill-directed in its own; it is helpless in pursuit, and unable either to complete a victory or cover a retreat. ”

“ A military organization is needed with an Army in the field, so as to ensure regular postal communication to and from home. This is a modern innovation in war, but one of importance to the comfort and spirits of the troops, and is a service demanded by their friends at home and by the nation in general. ”

“ The strength of a Company was at first indefinite, and amounted to some hundreds of men, but it was gradually made smaller, so as to be more flexible and mobile. The practice of the most successful leaders finally reduced it to a definite body of about a hundred men, which it was found was the largest number which could with certainty be reached by the voice, and commanded by one man, in battle.
This strength of one hundred men was that of a Company of the Scottish Guards in France, and is found in England in the troops and companies of the army of Henry VIII. ”

“ The next development of Infantry is seen in the Swedish Army as organized in the Thirty Years’ War by the great Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden. Its efficiency and success made it the model of the organization of all the armies in Europe, and they still retain its main features. ”

“ Military Forces are of two distinct categories: Fighting Troops, which carry out the actual operations; Administrative Services, whose function is to provide the Fighting Troops with all that they require to keep up their strength and efficiency. ”

“ In large armies, however, organization by Army Corps is unavoidable. We therefore naturally find the forces of the great military powers of Europe—Germany, France, Russia, Austria, Italy—organized by Army Corps, while the forces of Turkey, Japan, Great Britain, and the smaller nations of Europe are organized by Divisions only. ”

“ They will soon become mere skeletons like the old units, after which the Army will consist of a great number of very weak units—a state of things very detrimental to Command and force of action.
The wastage of war falls mainly on the Infantry, whose losses in battle and sufferings on the march67 exceed those of other Arms. Far more losses are incurred on the march than in the fighting. Marching is the rule of the soldier’s life in war, fighting the exception. Infantry wastes away like snow in the sun, as it marches; footsore men fall out, and fatigue and privations cause illness. ”

“ In the Middle Ages there was no medical organization with armies, nor were there even any surgeons. The sick and wounded were left to shift for themselves, and were tended, if at all, by private persons out of charity, or in monasteries, for the monks alone possessed any knowledge of surgery and medicine in those days. ”

“ Examples of the crimes of crowds are patent in history, but their heroisms also may be found, most of all in the innumerable instances when troops have faced death without flinching, and thereby gained victory for their Cause.
The characteristics of crowds may be glanced at. They will be seen to be analogous to those which animate troops. Crowds act on instinct and are incapable of reasoning, so that they are essentially irresponsible, while very easily influenced by suggestion. Their impressions are extraordinarily infectious, for Man is an imitative animal, and still more so is Man in bulk. ”

“ Being armed as Infantry, but more rapid in movement, they could be used like mounted Infantry, to surprise the enemy with rifle fire from distant and unexpected places, or to seize and hold important tactical points, such as bridges, defiles, and hills, before the Infantry can reach them. As yet, however, it cannot be said that any decision has been arrived at as to the organization, equipment, and sphere of utility of Cyclists, or their employment as fighting troops. ”

“ No General can afford to neglect his sick and wounded. He can hardly fight, if he knows he cannot attend to them on the battlefield, and remove them afterwards to hospitals in rear. There must be at the front sufficient surgeons, as well as medical appliances and stores, to cope with this work. The transport of the sick to the rear must be carried out without delay or confusion, and on the Lines of Communication, and at the Base, there must be properly equipped hospitals to receive the sick and wounded. ”