Otto Henker

“ Since many of the rays coming from the exit-pupil of the objective would not reach the eye of the observer at all, it is necessary, in order to make use of all of them, to direct the diverging rays forming the real image so that the whole of the light enters the eye of the observer. ”

“ Immersion systems in which the embedding liquid, cover-slip, immersion-liquid and front lens have equal refractive indices are called “homogeneous immersion systems.” In immersion systems the object-side focal length is greater than the image-side focal length. Nothing is altered as to objective magnification, however, as the first surface is plane, and the employment of the immersion means that the value of f1′ is unaltered.
If we assume that a normal eye observes the image through the eyepiece, the eyepiece must project a distant image from the real image produced by the objective. ”

“ In order to fully understand the representation in the microscope, the process must be investigated according to the wave-theory, especially in considering the representation of objects or object details having nearly the size of a wave-length. The rectilinear rays, which we have considered above, but which have no real existence, are nothing but the paths in which the light waves are transmitted. According to Huygens’s principle (see Diffraction) each aether particle, set vibrating by an incident wave, can itself act as a new centre of excitement, emitting a spherical wave ”

“ For examining preparations in polarized light a polarizer D is introduced in the illuminating apparatus below the diaphragm and an analyser E above the eyepiece. The analyser can be rotated, the angle being read by a divided circle F. Very often the analyser is placed in the tube, a little above the objective: it is then generally in a case G, which can be put into the tube. The placing of the analyser near the objective has the advantage that the field of View is not restricted, as is the case if the analyser is used above the eyepiece. ”

“ Through the large free working distance, which for certain work offers great advantages, the size of the field of View is diminished.
In magnifying glasses for direct vision the eye must always be considered. The lens is brought as close as possible to the eye so as to view as large a field as possible. The watchmaker’s glass is one of the earliest forms of this kind. Gullstrand showed how to correct these lenses for direct vision, i.e. to eliminate distortion and astigmatism when the centre of rotation of the eye coincided with the point where the principal rays crossed the axis. ”

“ In other words, a sufficiently good and distinct image as the resolving power permits cannot be arrived at, until the elimination, or a sufficient diminution, of the spherical and chromatic aberrations has been brought about.
The objective and eyepiece have such different functions that as a rule it is not possible to correct the aberrations of one system by those of the other. Such a compensation is only possible for one single defect, as we shall see later. The demands made upon the eyepiece, which has to represent a relatively large field by narrow cones of rays, are not very considerable. ”

“ A construction of prisms by Nachet is now almost forgotten, while on the contrary an extremely simple dividing prism published by Wenham (Lond. Micros. Soc., 1861, i. 109) has been exceptionally well attested in practice. It is more easily used than any other apparatus (see Binocular Instruments, fig. 8) . A reflection-prism (fig. 49) in a setting is placed above the last surface of the objective and divides the exit rays. The group of rays coming from the left half of the objective can continue its way without hindrance to the right eye. ”

“ The distance of the centres of the semicircular entrance pupils and their distance from the object regulates the difference of the two perspective representations, which are presented one to the right eye and one to the left. If the perspective centres lie too near one another in the object-space, as may happen with slightly opened and weak systems, the difference of the perspective is then too slight to make any real stereoscopic impression. On the other hand, a very much exaggerated stereoscopic effect can be derived from short focused systems of wide aperture. ”

“ The Fraunhofer formula permits the determination of the most useful magnification of such an objective in order to utilize its full resolving power.
As we saw above, the apparent size of a detail of an object must be greater than the angular range of vision, i.e. 1′. Therefore we can assume that a detail which appears under an angle of 2′ can be surely perceived. Supposing, however, there is oblique illumination, then formula (5) can always be applied to determine the magnifying power attainable with at least one objective. ”

“ When the pupil regulates the aperture of the rays producing the image the aberrations of the ordinary lenses increase considerably with the magnification, or, what 'amounts to the same thing, with the increase in the curvature of the surfaces. For lenses of short focus the diameter of the pupil is too large, and diaphragms must be employed which strongly diminish the aperture of the pencils, and so reduce the errors, but with a falling off of illumination. ”

“ In observing with strong systems it is therefore necessary cautiously to distinguish between spectral and real marks. To determine the utility of an objective for resolving fine details, one experiments with definite objects, which are usually employed simultaneously for examining its other properties. Most important are the fine structures of diatoms such as Surirella gemma and Amphipleura pellucida or artificial fine divisions as in a Nobert’s grating. The examination of the objectives can only be attempted when the different faults of the objective are known. ”

“ Very powerful simple microscopes have hardly any depth of definition so that in fact only points lying in one plane can be seen sharply with one focusing.
Illumination.—So long as the pupil of the observer alone undertakes the regulation of the rays there is no perceptible diminution of illumination in comparison with the naked eye vision. The losses of light which occur in this case are due to reflection, which takes place in the passage of the light through the glass surfaces. In a lens with two bounding surfaces in air there is a loss of about 9% ”

“ If microscopic preparations are observed by diffused daylight or by the more or less white light of the usual artificial sources, then an objective of fixed numerical aperture will only represent details of a definite fineness. ”

“ According to Abbe, a system can only be regarded as aplanatic if it is spherically corrected for not only one axial point, but when it also fulfils the sine-condition and thus magnifies equally in all zones a surface-element situated vertically on the axis at this point. ”

“ It is best if the image of the light is not larger than the object examined, and to effect this, an illuminating lens with an iris diaphragm is often placed between the source of light and the illuminator. By suitable adjustment and by changing the iris diaphragm the size of the illuminating field can be controlled. The objects observed with the vertical illuminator must not have a glass cover if the dry system is employed, because the upper surface of the glass cover would send so much light back into the objective by reflection, that the image would be indistinct. ”

“ If the magnification be greater than the resolving power demands, the observation is not only needlessly made more difficult, but the entrance pupil is diminished, and with it a very considerable decrease of clearness, for with an objective of a certain aperture the size of the exit pupil depends upon the magnification. ”

“ Where very short focus simple microscopes are employed, using high magnifications, it is imperative to employ a stand which permits exact focusing and the use of a special illuminating apparatus. Since, however, only relatively low powers are now employed, the ordinary rack and pinion movement for focusing suffices, and for illuminating the object only a mirror below the stage is required when the object is transparent, and a condensing lens above the stage when opaque. ”

“ Binocular instruments should aid the natural spatial or stereoscopic vision, or make it possible if the eyes fail. If the objects be so far distant that the two perspectives formed by the naked eye are no more distinguished from each other, recourse may be had to binocular telescopes and range-finders; and if the objects be so small that, in order to observe details on them, we must bring our eyes so close to the objects that they cannot accommodate the images, recourse may be had to binocular microscopes and magnifying glasses. ”

“ Owing to the curvature of the image, all parts of the object are not seen distinctly at one and the same time.
The resolving power of an objective depends on its numerical aperture. The numerical aperture can be determined in two ways. A diaphragm with a very narrow hole is placed on the stage, and the microscope sharply focused on the edges of the hole. The illuminating mirror is turned aside and a graduated scale is laid on the foot of the microscope. ”

“ For exceptionally accurate work microscope objectives are sometimes used as condenser systems. When using immersion objectives, an immersion condenser must also be used if rays of extreme obliquity are wanted, for, in consequence of the total reflections, rays can only come from the upper plane surface of the condenser, which have not a larger inclination to the axis than about 41°, varying according to the refractive index of the glass. ”

“ A microscope objective being made in essentially the same Way as a simple microscope, and the front focus of the compound system being situated before the front focus of the objective, the magnification due to the simple system makes the free object distance greater than that obtained with a simple microscope of equal magnification. ”

“ The Ramsden eyepiece is the most convenient for this because this plane lies in front of the collective lens, and the objective image has not yet been influenced by the eyepiece.
As both eyepieces are used with very small apertures (about f :20) no attempt has been made to overcome the spherical aberrations, which are usually very slight; neither, as a rule, are the eyepieces chromatically corrected, care has only to be taken by a suitable choice of the distance of one lens from the other, that the coloured images derived from a colourless object should have the same apparent size. ”

“ In all microscopes the rays are limited, not in the eyepiece, but in the objective, or before the objective when using a condenser. If the pencils are limited in the objective, the restriction of the pencil proceeding from the object-point is effected by either the front lens itself, by the boundary of a lens lying behind, by a real diaphragm placed between or behind the objective, or by a diaphragm-image. ”

“ The weak compensation oculars resemble a Huygenian eyepiece with achromatic eye-lens, whilst the more powerful ones are of a different construction. These eye-pieces are intentionally provided with a different chromatic magnification, which however is in opposition to that originating in the objective. They have also a shorter focus for red, and a longer one for blue, and thus magnify the red image more than the blue; and as the objective gives a large blue and a small red image, the two cancel one another and a colourless image is produced. ”

“ The earliest stages of the development of the binocular microscope had been always confined to those instruments with one objective, in the immediate neighbourhood of which the systems for dividing the pencil were placed. ”

“ From the figure, which represents vision with a motionless eye, it is seen that the apparent size increases as the object under observation is approached. The greater the visual angle, the more distinctly are the details of the object perceived. On the other hand, as the observer recedes from the object, the apparent size, and also the image on the retina diminishes ”

“ In dark field illumination care has to be taken that no direct rays reach the objective, and hence a good dark field illumination can be produced if the condenser system has a larger aperture than the objective. If an Abbe lighting apparatus is used a dark field diaphragm (fig. 44) can be placed in the iris diaphragm case. The central diaphragm disk keeps away all the light which would otherwise fall directly into the objective, and the open zones send so many oblique rays through the object that they cannot all be taken up by the objective. ”

“ Dark Field Illumination.—As was seen when discussing the physical theory, the minute details of the object cause diffractions, and can only be examined if the objective can take up at least two consecutive diffraction spectra. These diffracting details become especially distinct if the direct lighting cone of rays, the spectrum of zero order or the chief maximum, is not allowed to enter the objective and instead only two or more diffraction maxima are taken up ”

“ It is often desirable to pass from direct to oblique lighting. The Abbe apparatus makes this easy. The iris diaphragm i is pushed to the side by the rack and pinion t n. The chief cone of rays then enters obliquely into the objective, the angle between the direct cone of rays and the diffraction spectrum of the first order can then become as large again as with direct lighting, and still be taken up in the objective. ”