The cultivator's eye: Why sensory judgment determines successful moisture management

“ According to the writer’s observations and views, it being obvious that some plants are practically indifferent to the presence or absence of lime in the soil except in so far as it influences favorably the physical conditions, moisture must always stand first as the condition of maximum crop production, and as a conditio sine qua non of the best development of plants on all kinds of soils; its best measure being a matter of special adaptation to each species. ”

“ Water is absolutely indispensable to plants, since it is the medium that dissolves the various nutritive ingredients of the soil and thus renders them capable of assimilation by the roots. Accordingly the soil penetrated by these roots must be constantly supplied with sufficient moisture either by rainfall or by artificial irrigation. But air is not less indispensable. It disinfects the soil and by causing slow combustion of the humus gives rise to a slight but uninterrupted liberation of carbonic acid gas, one of the nutritive substances required by vegetation. ”

“ Scientists tell us that there is an abundance of plant food in most soils. The problem is to make it available. Plant food must be in solution and in the form of a film moisture surrounding the smallest soil particles in order to be available to the fine plant rootlets which seek it. ”

“ Soil moisture is necessary to dissolve plant food. Plant roots can absorb food from the soil only when it is in solution, and it seems to be necessary that a large quantity of water pass through the plant tissues to furnish the supply of mineral elements required by growth. ”

“ You have noticed how a potted plant will wilt if the soil in the pot is allowed to become dry (see Fig. 4) , or how the leaves of corn and other plants curl up and wither during long periods of dry weather. It is quite evident roots absorb moisture from the soil for the plant.
Experiment.—Plant some seeds in tumblers or in boxes filled with sand and in others filled with good garden soil. Keep them well watered and watch their progress for a few weeks (see Fig. 5) . The plants in the garden soil will grow larger than those in the sand. ”

“ Plants in the hotbed should be watered cautiously. An over-supply will often cause the seedlings to "damp off," and a lack of sufficient moisture at the roots will speedily result in injury, if not death. Whenever water is applied, use a sprinkler that throws a fine spray. If thrown on the soil in a stream the water will often wash the smaller plants [75] out of place. It may puzzle one to tell when just enough has been given. This is best determined by an examination of the soil. If moderately moist there is plenty of moisture below. ”

“ By growing them here as we have indicated, above the pot rim, the water passes off and most of the roots enjoy what is natural to them. They require a good amount of moisture when in vigorous growth, but should never be kept too wet, as this causes the soil to become soddened, and in this way are brought about the many failures that we hear of. Some cultivators imagine that because a plant is in vigorous health and growing freely nothing can hurt it, but this is a mistaken idea, as that really is the time during which they require more than ordinary care and attention. ”

“ When the soil is sodden with water, air can not enter to any extent, and hence oxygen can not eat off the surfaces of soil-particles and prepare food for plants; thus the plant must in great measure depend on the manure for sustenance, and, of course, the more this is the case, the more manure must be applied to get good crops. ”

“ Test the soil with your fingers, if it is dry, you can most likely water with impunity. If moist, more water is inviting root rot. When you water, make sure the entire soil ball is so saturated that excess water runs out the drainage hole in the bottom of the pot. Miniature plants are likely to require more frequent watering, because their pots are small and they are small. ”

“ Proportion of Moisture Available to Growing Plants.—Not all the capillary moisture contained in soils is available to plants, as can readily be seen from the fact that many plants, especially when growing in pots, begin to wilt while the soil still appears visibly moist. The limit of wilting differs greatly in different plants, and in the open ground it is difficult to ascertain that limit, because the deeper roots continue to supply moisture from moister substrata. ”

“ The plants are best grown in baskets or pans suspended from the roof, where they get all the light, but just keeping them from the burning sun. We find rough fibrous peat with sphagnum moss and good drainage to suit them. They must be kept moist at the roots during the growing season, but when their growth is completed only just sufficient to keep the stems plump must be allowed them until they begin to show their flower buds: then give a little moisture at the roots, which will induce them to bloom finer, and to start into growth after their flowers are over. ”

“ A moist genial atmosphere too is essential, a point requiring unremitting attention on account of the necessity of keeping up strong fires. With moisture as with heat, the cultivator must hold his hand somewhat in very severe or very dull weather; but while heat must not drop so as to chill the progressing vegetation, so neither must the lack of moisture parch the plants so as to check their growth. ”

“ Humidity of the atmosphere and of the soil, the available plant food in the soil, methods of tillage, fertilizers used, recurrence of frosts, amount of sunlight, the altitude and latitude of different localities, all have a bearing upon crop production. It is, therefore, very difficult to fix any approximate standard or average production for any particular locality without basing it upon a long series of years. ”

“ One of the unfavorable conditions which seedling plants must struggle against is too much heat, if they are kept in the living-room. An undue amount of warmth forces them into abnormal development in the early stages of their growth, and a little later on there comes a reaction from the weakness thus brought about, and this reaction is almost invariably death to the tender plant.
Another unfavorable condition is the result of indiscriminate watering. The soil is either kept too wet or too dry. To grow good plants there must be an even supply of moisture. ”

“ Press the fingers firmly on the surface; if particles of soil adhere it is too dry. Or tap the pots smartly with the knuckles or with a stick, when a clear and unmistakable answer will be obtained. Plants differ widely in their demand for water. Some are very thirsty, others require less frequent attention. The season of the year and the state of the atmosphere have also to be considered, as well as the fact that a heavy soil is more retentive of moisture than a lighter compost. A watchful eye and a willing hand will seldom err on this point. ”

“ Care must be taken in watering plants in winter. Those which are dormant, or are making but little growth, will require very little water. Those in active growth will need more. The only way to tell how much to give is to watch your plants closely, and observe the effect of the applications given. When the surface of the soil takes on a dry look it is safe to conclude that the roots of the plant in the pot have made use of most of the moisture in it, and that more water should be given. ”

“ But roses, geraniums, etc., and the common house plants require the soil to be moist, rather than wet. As a general rule it may be said that every pot should have one-sixth part of its depth filled with coarse pebbles, as a drainage, before the plants are potted. This gives all superfluous moisture a free passage out. Plants should be watered by examination and not by time. They require various quantities of moisture, according to their [Pg 435] activity, and the period of their growth. Let the earth be well stirred, and if it is becoming dry on the inside, give water. ”

“ The rain does not fall so, and, as Webb says, we must imitate nature. This watering-pot with a fine rose will enable you to sprinkle them slowly, and the soil can absorb the moisture naturally and equally. Most plants need water much as we take our food, regularly, often, and not too much at a time. Let this surface soil in the pots be your guide. It should never be perfectly dry, and still less should it be sodden with moisture; nor should moisture ever stand in the saucers under the pots, unless the plants are semi-aquatic, like this calla-lily. ”

“ In our article on manures, we have shown that it is the texture of soils, and their power to control moisture and heat, that renders them productive: hence, no soil can be poor that is stirred deep and kept in a friable condition, without being too open and porous; and no [Pg 392] soil can be good that is hard and not retentive of moisture, without having water stand upon it. ”

“ The operation of paring and burning produces two effects, one with reference to the clay in the soil, the other having to do with the ashes left from the burning of the weeds. Clay, as you know, is a tenacious, binding substance, impervious to both air and water. Consequently a soil that is too clayey is unfavorable for vegetation, furnishing the roots with insufficient air and moisture. Now, when clay is heated to a high temperature, it acquires very different properties: it no longer makes paste by the addition of water, but is porous, permeable, and readily admits air and water. ”

“ The relation of the soil to moisture is very important, for moisture is one of the greatest factors if not the greatest in the growth of the crop.
The power to absorb or soak up moisture from any source is greatest in those soils whose particles are smaller and fit closer together.
It is for this reason that strong loams and clay soils absorb and hold three times as much water as sandy soils do, while peaty or humus soils absorb a still larger proportion.
The reason why crops burn up so quickly on sandy soils during dry seasons is because of their weak power to hold water. ”

“ But why is it that light soils, need more manure than loamy or heavy lands? We answer—because, in the first place the rains which quickly descend through the open soil, wash down out of the reach of vegetation the soluble fertilizing matters, especially the nitrates, for which the soil has no retentive power; and in the second place, from the porosity of the soil, the air has too great access, so that the vegetable and animal matters of manures decay too rapidly, their volatile portions, ammonia and carbonic acid, escape into the atmosphere, and are in measure lost to the crops. ”

“ Plants can take no food in solid form. Hence it is of the greatest importance to have the soil pulverized and spongy, able to absorb and hold the greatest amount of water. The moisture-coated soil particles must have air-spaces between them. Air is as necessary to the roots as to the tops of growing plants.
Why does the farmer plough and harrow and roll the land? To pulverize the soil; to mellow and lighten it; to mix in thoroughly the manure he has spread on it, and to reach, if he can, the deeper layers that have plant food which the roots of his crops have not yet touched. ”

“ The soil is the farmer’s laboratory; his soil working implements are his mechanical laboratory appliances. A high order of intelligence is required to merge one operation into the next to take full advantage of the assistance offered by nature. The object of plowing and cultivation is to improve the mechanical condition of the soil, to retain moisture, to kill insects and to provide a suitable home for the different kinds of soil bacteria. ”

“ The surface of the soil to be planted should be made very fine and smooth. This is true of everything planted—it should be in finely-pulverized soil; it comes up more readily and evenly. Soil left in coarse lumps or particles gives the air too [Pg 138] much action on the germinating seeds and young plants, and retards and stints their growth. Deep plowing guards alike against too much or too little moisture. Too much water has room to sink away from the surface and allow it to dry speedily. It also forms a sort of reservoir to hold water for use in a drought. ”

“ The liquid water held in the pores of the soil, in the form of surface films representing the curved surface seen in capillary tubes, and therefore tending to cause the water to move upwards, as well as in all other directions, until uniformity of tension is established, is of vastly higher importance to plant growth than hygroscopic moisture. ”

“ If the soil were to remain long saturated, seeds would not germinate, and most cultivated plants would [120] not grow because all the air passages of the soil would be filled with water (Fig. 36) . The water which sinks down deep into the soil and helps to supply our wells is called free water. That part which is held as a film by the soil particles (as on a marble) is called capillary water. After the rain is over and the sun shines, a part of the moisture which is held by the particles near the surface is lost by evaporation. ”

“ In other words, soils generally hold, by capillary attraction, all the moisture that is of any advantage to the crops cultivated on them; and the water of drainage would, if retained for want of outlets, be stagnant, and produce more evil than good. ”

“ That moisture is a very important consideration in the apple orchard the effects of our frequent droughts are ample evidence. The amount of rainfall in the Eastern States when it is properly distributed is fully sufficient for the needs of an apple tree. By enlarging the reservoir or water holding capacity of the soil and by preventing the loss of water by evaporation, an excess of rainfall in the spring may be held for later distribution and use.
As a rule, the improvement of a poor soil texture is as effective as the supplying of plant food and much cheaper. ”

“ There are large areas, dry and cracked on the surface, where the soil is moist three and four feet below the surface in the dry season. By keeping the surface broken and well pulverized the moisture rises sufficiently to insure a crop. Many Western farmers have found out this secret of cultivation, and more will learn in time the good sense of not spreading themselves over too large an area; that forty acres planted and cultivated will give a [Pg 106] better return than eighty acres planted and neglected. ”

“ Where the foot-print is, the soil has been again pressed down at the surface, the particles have been crowded closer together, and capillarity is restored to the surface so that the moisture is free to escape (Fig. 38) . In caring for flower-beds, or even in growing plants in a pot in the school-room, it is important that the surface of the soil be kept loose and [122] mellow. Far better in a flower garden is a garden rake than a watering pot.
Experiment No. 8.—To show the importance of the surface mulch, fill several pots with a sandy loam soil, putting the same weight of soil into each pot. ”

“ With a bit of forethought, the water-wise gardener can easily reestablish capillarity below sprouting seeds so that moisture held deeper in the soil rises to replace that lost from surface layers, reducing or eliminating the need for watering. The principle here can be easily demonstrated. In fact, there probably isn't any gardener who has not seen the phenomenon at work without realizing it. Every gardener has tilled the soil, gone out the next morning, and noticed that his or her compacted footprints were moist while the rest of the earth was dry and fluffy. ”

“ On a clay soil, not cultivated, 753 pounds of water were transpired for each pound of dry matter; on the cultivated soil, only 582 pounds. The farmer who faithfully cultivates the soil throughout the summer and after every rain has therefore the satisfaction of knowing that he is accomplishing two very important things: he is keeping the moisture in the soil, and he is making it possible for good crops to be grown with much less water than would otherwise be required. ”

“ Instead of letting the weeds get away with any plant food, he should be furnishing more, for clean and frequent cultivation will not only break the soil up mechanically, but let in air, moisture and heat--all essential in effecting those chemical changes necessary to convert non-available into available plant food. Long before the science in the case was discovered, the soil cultivators had learned by observation the necessity of keeping the soil nicely loosened about their growing crops. ”

“ An Irish bull hits the truth exactly: the best way to fight weeds is to have none to fight; and raking the ground over on a sunny day, about once a week, destroys them when they are as yet but germinating seeds. At the same time it opens the pores of the earth, as a physiologist might express himself. Unfailing moisture is maintained, air, light, and heat are introduced to the roots in accordance with Nature's taste, and the whole strength of the mellow soil goes to produce only that which is useful. ”

“ Good drainage must be secured in order to grow good vegetables, and the use of tile will be found a most effective remedy for the evil of a soil unduly retentive of moisture.
In almost all localities there will be families who have no garden, but who would make liberal use of vegetables if they were easily procurable. There is a chance for boys and girls to earn an "honest penny." If it is found that there is likely to be more in the home garden than the family can make use of, canvass the neighborhood for customers for the probable surplus. ”

“ The truth is that there is no single, incontrovertible secret to success, but rather a combination of many factors of equal, or nearly equal, importance. The best soil in the world won’t make plants flower unless temperature and sunlight are right. The frequency with which you water plants should be affected by indoor temperature, humidity, and pot size. And don’t think it is Aunt Minnie’s favorite brand of fertilizer alone that keep her plants in good health. ”

“ It is necessary always to give them close attention as regards the supply of moisture at the roots, for they have no thick fleshy pseudobulbs to support them should the artificial help fail. They grow in tufts of small short crowns scarcely forming bulbs, and it is from these that the leaves are developed. Being small growing plants, we find they do well on blocks of wood, with the roots surrounded by living sphagnum moss, the blocks being suspended from the roof. ”

“ We find the plants to thrive when grown in pots or baskets, with rough, fibrous peat and good drainage. They need a moderate amount of moisture during the period of growth, but when at rest less may be given, merely enough to keep the bulbs in a plump state. ”

“ That the quantity of mineral food in a soil may be of far less importance than the quantity of water, and that the cultivator should make certain that there is sufficient moisture in his land so that the mineral salts may be readily dissolved and so become available as plant-food; that far too much importance has been attached to putting chemicals in the soil and too little to the physical condition of the soil, whereby the work of bacteria and the solvent action of organic acids may make available plant-food that without these agencies is unavailable. ”

“ However, should there be sufficient moisture in the soil to permit absorption by roots, provided a slow rate was adequate to replace the transpiration loss, which rate was made lower by a more moist air, a slight rain would be of great significance, even if it did not penetrate to any appreciable depth. On the intensely arid desert such slight modifications of the water relations as the lowering of the temperature as winter approaches, causing decreased evaporation or rains, although actually small in amount, may be of large moment to plants. ”

“ According to Whitney, the relations of soils to moisture and heat are such prominent factors in the distribution and development of agricultural crops, that the determination of the actual moisture content of soils in the fields should be considered a necessary part of the meteorological observations, and of far more importance, indeed, or having far more meaning to the agriculturist than the simple record of the rain-fall. ”