Frederick William Lanchester

“ If we assume some given value for the horse-power per unit weight, then a machine may be designed either to develop the highest flight speed possible or to obtain the greatest rate of altitude increase—i.e., vertical velocity. Any actual design is of the nature of a compromise; maximum flight speed is kept as high as possible consistently with obtaining a sufficient rapidity of ascent. The independent air fleet must be, without question, the master of the service machines whose destruction it is required to encompass, both in the matter of speed and climbing capacity. ”

“ It may, indeed, be found when the size of air fleet becomes great, that, owing to the numbers becoming unwieldy, the only way in which the fighting strength can be increased will be by increasing the power of the individual unit—i.e., by employing larger machines, mounting more guns.
Again, the larger machine, owing to its less relative body resistance and other well-understood causes, has a lower coefficient of traction, and so, where the speed is important (as we may always assume to be more or less the case) , the advantage is with the larger machine. ”

“ So long as neither air force possesses any marked superiority in the matter of speed, and so long as neither army has at its disposal more machines than are reasonably necessary for the reconnaissance and other services mentioned, we cannot anticipate that the results of such aerial combat will be decisive in any sense. ”

“ Air Tactics. It may be laid down that the independent air fleet, in order that it shall be capable of fulfilling the duties assigned to it, must be strong by virtue of numbers. In order to destroy—i.e., not merely to drive away—the active aircraft of the enemy, it must be of decisively higher speed, so that the enemy, whether reconnaissance or fighting machines, will be compelled to surrender or give battle. ”

“ This need for superiority in the matter of speed means evidently that the air-fleet type must suffer in some degree in the matter of armament; alternatively it must be a heavier type machine for machine. Closely allied to the question of speed is that of climbing power. Other things being equal, whether for increased speed or for increased climbing power, a greater horse-power per unit weight is necessary. ”

“ The reason for this is almost certainly one of aerodynamics; the air immediately in the wake of a bird in flight has residuary downward motion, and so is "bad" air from the point of view of the bird following. On the other hand, the air to the right and left of the leader has residuary upward motion owing to the vortical character of the wake disturbance, and so is "good" air; consequently the V formation arises naturally from each bird seeking the air which gives the best support, a matter in which most birds show consummate skill. ”

“ However, the experience of the present war seems to indicate that there is something in this view, and it is more than probable that in the future the single-man machine will become a recognised type for military purposes. The advantage of the single-man type is that the machine can be altogether smaller and more compact, it can be designed to possess, speed for speed, a higher degree of inherent stability, and so will fly itself, leaving the pilot quite free to make observations and notes. ”

“ It would appear to be only possible to ameliorate the conditions under which a machine will have to fight when resisting an attack from above by arranging the gun armament with as great a capacity for upward fire as possible. A further advantage in the possession of the upper berth or "gage" lies in the fact that the potential energy, represented by the difference of altitude, may, at any time, be used to augment the velocity of flight above normal, a power which cannot fail to be of real tactical value. ”

“ In the absence of any organised air fleet intended for the destruction of the types as above defined, there will take place, indeed as is already the case, a certain amount of desultory fighting of a local character; at one point the aircraft of one belligerent will secure the advantage, and at some other point the reverse may be the case. ”

“ When the numbers become great a point will inevitably be reached when the accuracy and closeness of the formation will be a matter of first importance to the tactical scheme, since the only way in which the whole force can be brought to bear at once will be by a studied plan, in which each machine will have its allotted place. ”

“ The air fleet with the most perfect system of signalling will be the best able to take advantage of any opportunity that may arise in the course of an engagement by adapting its tactical scheme to the needs of the moment. In order to render it possible to control large numbers, it would appear to be evident that the unit command will be a small group, or what is at present termed a "flight" (some four or five strong) , and that the individual machines will act on the plan of follow-my-leader ”

“ When, however, as we may suppose will some day be the case, the numbers become great the whole question cannot fail to become one of the first magnitude. The actual importance will again be greatly increased when air fleet meets air fleet, for in view of this eventuality, numbers will be augmented to an extent that we have as yet no means of gauging, perhaps beyond anything that we can at present imagine. ”

“ When a fleet is of sufficient numerical strength it may be that a definite superiority in climbing power will not be necessary. Thus sections of the fleet may be told off to operate at various different altitudes, so that escape from one section will mean engagement by another. If the choice of altitude is thus left to the enemy, it is clear that the numerical superiority will need be overwhelming. ↑ The range of the armament in an aerial engagement is mainly a question of muzzle velocity, not calibre. ”

“ Alternatively, the larger machine, speed for speed, will, with equally good design, be the better climber; these points have already been discussed to some extent; it is only necessary here to draw attention to their influence. It would thus appear that there is nothing to be gained at the present time by attempting anything heroic in the direction of aeroplane design; the large machine will come (if it does come) by a natural process of evolution. ”

“ An exception may be made in the case of the strategic scout, which, being designed purely for speed and being burdened with neither armour or armament, may be taken as, within reason, faster than anything that can be brought against it. ”

“ Formation Flying. Machines disabled. Whatever formation plan be adopted, it is evident that provision must be made for machines shot down or disabled to be able to leave the lines without creating confusion; evidently the closer the formation the more danger there will be of a real mix up and debacle in case of any confusion arising. Similarly, it is important that the enemy shall not be able, by ramming tactics or otherwise, to throw the formation out of gear ”

“ We may assume that numbers may combine in order to overweight the enemy locally, and drive him out of action; the advantage obtained, however, will only be temporary. In such desultory air warfare there will be a continual wastage of men and machines, but these losses can be made good by new units and new formations. ”

“ It may therefore be anticipated that the trend of design in the fighting machine will not be in the direction of very heavy units analogous to the battleship, but rather in the construction of machines of moderate size and weight, with the maximum possible rate of fire. ”

“ There is very little doubt but that, by this manner of flight (formation flying in fact) a flight of birds is able to cover the ground with a material saving of work done. If the point in question is as important as it appears, it will certainly have to be taken into consideration in connection with aeroplane tactics, and more particularly formation flying. ”

“ Whilst pointing out that the large aeroplane does not possess the marked advantage over the smaller, which, in the Navy, has led to the development of the Dreadnought and the super-Dreadnought, the author does not wish it to be inferred that his opinion is against the reasonable development and growth in the weight and dimensions of the fighting-machine. ”

“ Thus it will require to possess a considerable superiority in the essential matter of horse-power; it must be made impossible for its prey to escape either by horizontal flight or by putting on altitude. ”

“ Where the numbers are moderate, as, for example, in the handling of a single squadron, the formation adopted may evidently be fairly elastic, and there will be no difficulty in bringing the tail of the formation promptly into action. ”