Neilson Carel Debevoise

“ In the meantime the nobles of Adiabene had become dissatisfied with the rule of Izates II and proposed Parthian intervention to Vologases. The Parthian ruler demanded that Izates give up the special privileges granted to him by Artabanus III and resume his status as vassal of the empire. Izates, fully aware of the temerity of his defiance, sent his wives and children to a citadel, gathered all the grain into the fortified places, and burned all the forage in the open country. ”

“ Documents in Pahlavi, the official language of the Parthians, are so scarce as to be negligible. The extensive and well published Parthian coinage is the basis on which any chronology of the rulers must rest.
For the eastern frontier of the empire the Chinese sources provide us with accurate and, for certain periods, fairly complete information. On the Indian frontier we must again depend upon coins and inscriptions, the uncertain dating of which makes their use peculiarly difficult.
An extended criticism of the classical sources is both impossible and unnecessary here. ”

“ Vologases with a large army advanced against the enemy, whom he met in Khorasan. After crossing a small river his forces found themselves surrounded on all sides. Taken by surprise they were forced to abandon their horses and retreat, but the rebels cornered them in the mountains and killed a great number. At last the loyal Parthian troops managed to reorganize, fall upon their pursuers with great fury, and drive them as far as the sea (the Caspian?) . Homeward bound after this victory, the army of Vologases met a rebel contingent which had become separated from the main body. ”

“ As Cassius had advised, Crassus moved forward with a wide front and little depth to his line, the wings supported by cavalry. To his son Publius he gave the command of one wing, to Cassius that of the other, while he himself took the center. The hurried advance tired still more the already weary Romans. On the approach of the Parthians, the bulk of the troops were formed into a square. The strength of the enemy remained an unknown quantity, for their numbers were masked by an advance guard and the heavy armor of the cataphracts was concealed under skins. ”

“ In the army which Phraates led eastward against the Sacae were Greek troops, made prisoners during the war with Antiochus. The Parthian is said to have treated these Greeks with great cruelty. Phraates perhaps counted on the fact that they were facing unknown foes far from their homeland and would therefore be fighting for their lives; but when in the battle which eventually resulted between the Parthians and the Sacae the Greeks saw their captors hard pressed, they at once deserted to the enemy. ”

“ Two of the most prominent among them, Sinnaces and Abdus, the latter a eunuch, went secretly to Rome, where they reported that if a Parthian prince should appear on the frontier the country would rise to his support. Tiberius chose Phraates, last and youngest son of Phraates IV, now a man of years and a resident of Rome for nearly half a century. But Phraates died suddenly fter his arrival in Syria, perhaps from age and the fatigue of travel, or possibly overtaken by the fate which hovers over those who pretend to thrones occupied by such as Artabanus. ”

“ Trajan then bade him speak out so that all might hear. Parthamasiris explained that he had not been defeated in battle but had come to be invested with the crown of Armenia, just as Tiridates had been. Trajan then declared that he would surrender Armenia to no one and that henceforth it was to be a Roman province. [47] For promised security Parthamasiris thanked the Emperor, but he complained of his suffering and reproached him for the treatment accorded him. [48] Trajan permitted the Armenian ruler to leave camp, escorted by his Parthian companions and a detachment of Roman cavalry. ”

“ As Dio says, the Sun-god made a siege impossible, and the Romans were troubled by clouds of flies, which settled with maddening tenacity on food and drink. Trajan himself mixed in the fighting and had a narrow escape from death when his cavalry was driven back in disorder. A part of the wall was broken down, but the Roman troops failed to occupy the breach thus created, and the whole affair had to be abandoned. [122] A general withdrawal of the Roman forces then took place, not only from the Tigris and the lower Euphrates, but even from towns as far north as Dura-Europus. ”

“ Parthia was never long sympathetic with kings who held their crowns by virtue of Roman support, and the disaffected party probably had strong support from the two nobles who had failed to attend the coronation. Artabanus was discovered in Hyrcania clothed in dirty rags and living by his bow. Naturally he was suspicious of a trap when first approached, but eventually he became convinced of the reality of Parthian dislike for Tiridates if not of the people's love for himself. ”

“ In effect the Parthian empire became a vast feuda­tory power, a pyramid the apex of which was the King of Kings, beneath whom came the satraps, the nobles, the Greek merchants, and finally the native tillers of the soil, the ultimate basis upon which any such system must rest. The nobles who controlled the land probably lived in the larger cities, where they and the wealthy Greek merchants who depended upon them for protection would naturally form alli­ances. ”

“ Musa took the final step to secure for her son Phraataces the throne of Parthia; Phraates, now an old man, was poisoned. [16] Artavasdes, established by Roman aid on the Armenian throne, was looked upon with disfavor by many of his subjects and certainly by the Parthians. A coalition of these two groups drove him from the throne about 1 b.c., and Tigranes and his sister-wife again secured control. [17] If Rome was to maintain her sphere of influence in Armenia and her prestige in the Near East, immediate action was imperative. ”

“ This was the reason why they struck not at Cappadocia but at the rich area around Antioch. It was a comparatively easy matter to cross the Euphrates, avoid contact with the small garrisons in the cities, and descend upon the rich villas and suburbs of Antioch. Cassius shut himself up in the heavily walled portion of the city, where he remained until the Parthians had departed. Probably their withdrawal was occasioned by the completion of their plundering of the city lands rather than by any action of the Roman troops, as Cicero himself is free to say. ”

“ Unlike other invaders from the northeast, the Parthians did not kill and destroy for the sake of booty, but often took over new territory without creating more than a ripple in the life of the common man. The greatest changes which they brought about probably took place within the administrative machinery, but unfortunately little firsthand information is available on the internal structure of the Parthian empire, because we possess very few official documents. ”

“ At this critical juncture Phraates played his trump card by sending Demetrius back to Syria at the head of a Parthian squadron in the hope that he might thus force Antiochus to return home. But relief came from the people of the invaded territory themselves, for, exasperated by months of violence from the rough Seleucid mercenaries and by demands for provisions, these garrison cities became pro-Parthian. The Seleucid soldiers were undoubtedly weakened by prolonged inactivity, and, scattered as they were, they lost their numerical advantage over the Parthians. ”

“ The disorganization of the Roman army was by this time almost complete, for Roman stole from Roman, Antony's own baggage-carriers were attacked, and the commander himself made arrangements for a freedman in his bodyguard to kill him should he so command. To reorganize his troops Antony called a halt, and he had partially brought order out of chaos when the Parthians resumed the attack. A testudo was formed, and the front ranks moved gradually along until they came to the river, across which the wounded were sent first, while the retreat was covered by the cavalry. ”

“ There were in existence in antiquity various histories of Parthia, some written by men of unquestioned ability. The Parthian histories of Arrian and of Apollodorus of Artemita would have answered many questions, and those of Asinius Quadratus and Quintus Dellius might have been nearly as useful. According to the estimate of Lucian, the work of Crepereius Calpurnianus of Pompeiopolis would have been of little value. Fragments of Quadratus and Arrian exist, the latter of particular value in the campaign of Trajan provided we can place them in the narrative. ”

“ Many historical references have already been pointed out, for some of these writers were in position to secure first-hand information, and most of them were contemporary with the events they mention. But more important than the actual information which they furnish is the fact that the poets mirror the passing thought and interests of contemporary Rome. In their writings, then, we should expect to find evidence of the rise of Roman interest in the East, and, since many of the poems are datable by internal evidence, we should be able to trace its development quite closely. ”

“ Supported by Roman troops and by Iberians supplied by his brother Pharasmanes, Mithradates defeated the Armenians under Demonax with ease. Lesser Armenia under Cotys continued resistance for some time, but it too was at last subdued. The new king, perhaps because he felt insecure, ruled with great cruelty, which soon caused appeals for aid to the Parthian Vardanes. The Parthian king attempted to secure the help of one of his principal vassals, Izates II of Adiabene, but was unable to convince him that a campaign against Mithradates had much chance of success. ”

“ The increased political importance of Parthia during the reign of Mithradates II was due in large part to the wealth accruing to her treasuries from the development of overland trade. While this certainly began before the Parthian invasion of Mesopotamia, [56] unification of political control along the whole route from the Roman frontier to the point where the trade was taken over by Chinese merchants proved a tremendous stimulus to business. ”

“ On the death of Artaxias III (Zeno) of Armenia, Artabanus seized the opportunity thus occasioned to place his eldest son, known to us only as Arsaces, upon the throne. [57] To the aged Tiberius he wrote, claiming the treasure left by Vonones in Syria and Cilicia and threatening to add to his domain all the lands of the Achaemenidae and Seleucidae. [58]
Perhaps it was Artabanus III who brought the Mandaeans from "Madai" to the country of the Two Rivers. [59] The long reign of Artabanus suggests that he was both able and powerful and that he must have restored central authority over the nobles. ”

“ The fact that "very few true Parthian coins are found in India" [23] furnishes additional evidence for the belief that the Sacae and the Pahlavas were independent of the Parthian empire, though they had been vassals of that power. [24] In spite of the warlike reputation which the Parthians attained in the west by virtue of their successes against the Romans, they were a people quick to realize and profit by the advantages of peace. ”

“ Since the legions, among the most rapid marchers in the world, set out in the spring, they probably arrived before the lush grass of the last rains had burned away. On May 6 the troops reached the river Balicha (Balīkh) at a point below the city of Carrhae (Harran) .
At Carrhae the Roman commander was informed by his scouts that Suren was near by. The officers urged a rest and a reconnoitering expedition; but Crassus, carried away by the ardor of his son, advanced almost immediately, allowing his men barely sufficient time to eat and drink while standing in ranks. ”

“ The Parthian forces advanced to Artaxata (Artashat) . When the siege promised to be of considerable duration, Phraates left a detachment of his troops with the younger Tigranes and returned to his own country. Tigranes the Elder then took the field and defeated his son. The young man thought of seeking refuge with Mithradates of Pontus, but felt that Mithradates was now little stronger than he; so, perhaps at the suggestion of Phraates, he threw himself on the mercy of Pompey. The Roman commander was already marching on Artaxata, and Tigranes acted as guide. ”

“ They set up a robber kingdom in northern Babylonia, defeated the Parthian satrap, and thus brought themselves to the attention of the Great King. Artabanus handled the situation in a manner much used by present-day mandataries: he sent for the brothers and placed them in formal control of the region which they had ruled as robber barons. This arrangement served admirably for fifteen years, until the death of the brothers just before the revolt of Seleucia. ”

“ Armenia was then entirely in the possession of the Romans, and Nero appointed Tigranes V, great-grandson of Archelaus, the last king of Cappadocia, as ruler. Parts of Armenia were intrusted to Pharasmanes of Iberia, Polemon of Pontus, Aristobulus of Lesser Armenia, and Antiochus of Commagene, in order to make the control of the newly subdued territory easier, for some people still favored the Parthians. Leaving a thousand legionaries with three or four thousand cavalry and infantry auxiliaries to support the new ruler, Corbulo returned to Syria, where he succeeded Quadratus, who had died. ”