Nature and nurture: The enduring tension between terroir and human skill in viticulture

“ Vintages ripened under certain skies, on certain hills, where certain waters flowed, with cellarage in certain soils, had a faculty of aging gracefully, mellowing to a smoothness and purity and desirableness that made for cheer and health without the alloy of sordid inebriety. The bouquet of wine, the perfected essence of the grape subjected to the further courses of nature, has been a theme of praise for centuries. ”

“ Every foot of soil has its proper quality; the grape on two sides of the same fence has new flavors; and so every acre on the globe, every family of men, every point of climate, has its distinguishing virtues. Certainly then this country does not lie here in the sun causeless; and though it may not be easy to define its influence, men feel already its emancipating quality in the careless self-reliance of the manners, in the freedom of thought, in the direct roads by which grievances are reached and redressed, and even in the reckless and sinister politics, not less than in purer expressions. ”

“ Moreover, as I shall attempt to show, the Australian climate and soil are beyond all question naturally intended for the cultivation of the grape, so that there is no occasion to overcome the forces of nature; on the contrary, they are unceasingly giving us the greatest encouragement. Then, again, think what widespread prosperity the use of our own wine would bring about. ”

“ But, though the vine is thus the spontaneous production of nature, the art of man is requisite to bring it to perfection. Like other fruits and plants cultivated in our gardens, the fruit of the cultivated vine seems of a different nature from that which grows wild in the fields. The influence of culture even extends to compensate, in a certain degree, the defects of climate, as the cultivated grape attains its maturity in a higher latitude by seven degrees, than where the wild vine ripens its austere and diminutive fruit. ”

“ What can I say of the planting, up-springing, and growth of vines? It is with insatiable delight that I thus make known to you the repose and enjoyment of my old age. Not to speak of the vital power of all things that grow directly from the earth,—which from so tiny a fig or grape seed, or from the very smallest seeds of other fruits or plants, produces such massive trunks and branches,—do not shoots, scions, quicksets, layers, accomplish results which no one can behold without delighted admiration? The vine, indeed, drooping by nature, unless supported, is weighed down to the ground ”

“ Very fair pears have been raised by dropping a seed into a good soil and letting it alone for years; but finer and choicer are raised by the watchings, tendings, prunings of the gardener. Wild grape-vines bore very fine grapes, and an abundance of them, before our friend Dr. Grant took up his abode at Iona, and, studying the laws of Nature, conjured up new species of rarer fruit and flavor out of the old. ”

“ The reasons for the more or less temporary character of grape regions are becoming more and more apparent as our knowledge of grape-growing increases. The grape, more than most other domesticated plants, is profoundly influenced by climate, soil, cultural treatment, and insect and fungus pests. In any region in which the grape succeeds at all well, conditions are more favorable at the start of the industry than later ”

“ Notwithstanding—that a concurrence of so many favourable circumstances, with regard to soil, exposure, and seasons, is necessary to bring the grape to that degree of perfection which, with proper management, insures a good wine; the vine, in climates favourable for it, is a hardy plant. ”

“ The grape-grower, of all others, should be a close observer of nature in her various moods, a thinking and a reasoning being; he should be trying and experimenting all the time, and be ready always to throw aside his old methods, should he find that another will more fully meet the wants of his plants. ”

“ Raking, too, they say, is very injurious to the vine while the grape is forming; and it will be quite sufficient, they assure us, if the ground is turned up three times in the year, after the vernal equinox—first, at the rising of the Vergiliæ,3135 the second at the rising of the Dog-star, and the third time just as the grape is turning black. Some persons make it a rule that an old vineyard shall have one turning up between the time of vintage and the winter solstice, though others, again, are of opinion that it is quite sufficient to bare the roots and manure them. ”

“ THE MAKING OF THE WINE—THE CELLAR. Up till this time our whole attention has been taken up with everything that has to do with the production of the grape. But with the gathering of the crop a complete change has taken place, for nature no longer exercises such a controlling influence. At this stage the art of winemaking really begins, and the climate, the soil, and all the other factors that have so much to do with the growth of the grape assist us no longer. ”

“ There are circumstances by which he must be guided, in leaving a greater quantity of bearing branches, or retrenching their number: these are, the nature of the climate, the exposure, the nature of the soil, the vigour of the plant, the quality of the wood formed the preceding year. The age of the vine ought, also, to be considered, and the kind to which it belongs; one kind, is famous for ripening a large quantity of grapes; another, is capable of bringing only a small quantity of grapes to perfection. The vine, too heavily charged, is soon exhausted; too lightly, it yields little but wood. ”

“ This brief introduction leads us to the consideration of American grapes as cultivated plants. We have seen that it is an absolute impossibility to grow the Old World grape in eastern America. The fruit-growers in this great region are forced to plant the native grapes if any. It required two hundred years to establish this fact and it is less than a hundred years since grape-growers have generally acknowledged it as a fact. What was known of American grapes during the two hundred years wasted in attempting to grow the foreign Vinifera? ”

“ For it is proved that nearly all of the wild grapes have horticultural possibilities; and experience with many plants teaches that the boundaries of areas inhabited by the wild species of a given region coincide with those suited to the production of the domesticated plant in that region. It is not possible to tell where the grape-growing regions of the future are to be located; for species and individuals of this fruit are so common that no one can say where the grape is most at home in America. ”

“ Grapes grow more or less well in any soil adapted to fruit-growing. It is not true, even, that the grape is more particular as to soils than other fruits. But the necessity of having great quantity and high quality of fruit in profitable viticulture makes it very necessary to take their preferences as to soil into strict account. ”

“ Should the soil be very poor it may be enriched by manure, ashes, bone-dust, etc.; but it will seldom be found necessary, as most of our soil is rich enough; and it is not advisable to stimulate the growth too much, as it will be rank and unhealthy, and injurious to the quality and flavor of the fruit. ”

“ THE SOIL. People as a rule run away with the idea that the soil for the grape must necessarily be of a rich character. Even the farmer, thinking of wheat growing, and the market-gardener, thinking of his turnips, are apt to entertain a similar belief. But the truth is that the vine is a hardy plant and will grow in almost any place that is not water-logged or otherwise unsuitable. In America the definition of a soil adapted for the grape is expressed in the following phrase:—“Land that is suitable for vine-glowing is land that is not suitable for anything else.” ”

“ The soil is sand, gravel, and shingle, scorched by the sun, and would be incapable of yielding as much nourishment to a patch of oats as is found on 'the bare hillside of some cold, bleak, Highland croft.' On this unpromising ground, grow those grapes which produce the finest wine in the world. ”

“ The soil of the vine yards of Hermitage, and of many others of great celebrity, consists of this decomposed gravel, which seems to possess all the requisites for a superior produce of wine, uniting that lightness and porosity which permits the roots to spread, the water to filtrate, and the air to penetrate, while the stony surface arrests the rays of the sun before they penetrate to the roots. ”

“ By its physical characters we mean its looseness or stiffness, its depth, and its colour. This looseness is a matter of much importance. It fulfils the great indication required in a soil for grape-growing; that is, a soil which will not remain damp after having been well wet. There is a marked difference between a stiff clayey soil which dries up and cracks in summer, and a loose soil which is always moist a little below the surface.
The depth of the soil is a matter that varies in accordance with the climate. In warm districts the vine requires more room for development, and goes deeper. ”

“ The physical character of a soil has more to do with the welfare of the grape than fertility. Sand and clay are the two distinct types of soils usually found in general agricultural regions. As one or the other predominates soils take their character. So far as growth alone is concerned these two types of soil do not influence the vines much differently, but the fruit in quantity and quality is greatly influenced by them. According as to whether sand or clay is in excess a soil is loose or compact, retains or gives up water, and is warm or cool. ”

“ A compact soil is made so by an excess of clay or of very fine sand. Grapes require a light friable soil and compactness is often a serious defect. Usually species and varieties with large, thick roots are better adapted to compact soils than those with small root systems, probably because the strong roots have greater penetrating power than the weak ones. Lightness and permeability of the soil may be influenced by subsoiling and through the use of stable manure and cover crops, but a hard soil is generally so ill adapted to grape-growing that this fruit should not be planted on it. ”

“ The heat-retaining properties of a soil must always be taken into account in growing grapes. The great preference which many varieties of grapes show for sands, loams, shales and gravels, depends largely upon the greater amount of heat found in such soils. In northern regions it is especially needful that the soil furnish an abundance of bottom heat for the grape. The removal of an excess of moisture is helpful in regulating soil heat; and, other things being equal, a well-drained soil is warmest. ”

“ The grapes grown here contain much sugar, therefore keep and ship well, have a high flavor, and are especially sought for in wine-making; grapes on these soils mature early, have tough skins, but are only medium-sized berries. The yields are much more variable on this soil than on the others because of the great variation in the depth of soil. On deep soils of this loam the yield is all that could be desired. Because of the lay of the land, and the nature of the soil, there is much washing and cultivation must be done judiciously. ”

“ The frequent occurrence of unfavorable seasons in Europe, when the grapes did not ripen fully, and were sadly deficient in sugar, set intelligent men to thinking how this defect could be remedied; and a grape crop, which was almost worthless, from its want of sugar, and its excess of acids, could be made to yield at least a fair article, instead of the sour and unsaleable article generally produced in such seasons. ”

“ The vine delights in heat, and the grape only attains to perfection in a dry soil, struck by the rays of an ardent sun. When a rainy season induces a constant humidity in the ground, and maintains a damp and moist temperature in the atmosphere, the grape neither acquires saccharine principle nor flavour, and the wine made from it is weak and insipid. ”

“ All pants, all is effort and toil 'neath the sun, The stolid old sun, tranquil ripener of wheat, Who works o'er our haste imperturbably on To swell the green grape yon, turning it sweet. Work on, faithful sun, for the bread and the wine, Feed man with the milk of the earth, and bestow The frank glass wherein unconcern laughs divine,— Ye harvesters, vintagers, work on, aglow! For from the flour's fairest, and from the vine's best, Fruit of man's strength spread to earth's uttermost, God gathers and reaps, to His purposes blest, The Flesh and the Blood for the chalice and host! ”

“ The rains which fall at the period, or the approach of the vintage, are always the most dangerous, as the grape has then neither time nor vigour to elaborate the juices with which it is impregnated, and presents, for fermentation, a liquor which is too fluid, and holding in solution too little saccharine matter to produce a strong good bodied wine. ”

“ But on the bluffs overhanging the banks of our large streams, especially on the northern and western sides, where the vines are sheltered from the north and west winds, and fully exposed to the warm southern winds of our summer days, and where the fogs arising from the water yet give sufficient humidity to the atmosphere, even in the hottest summer days, to refresh the leaf during the night and morning hours; where the soil on the southern and eastern slopes is a mixture of decomposed stone and leaf-mould, and feels like velvet to the feet—there is the paradise for the grape ”

“ I can never have too much of this pleasure—to let you into the secret of what gives my old age repose and amusement. For I say nothing here of the natural force which all things propagated from the earth possess—the earth which from that tiny grain in a fig, or the grape-stone in a grape, or the most minute seeds of the other cereals and plants, produces such huge trunks and boughs. Mallet-shoots, slips, cuttings, quicksets, layers—are they not enough to fill anyone with delight and astonishment? The vine by nature is apt to fall, and unless supported drops down to the earth ”

“ The second thing to be observed in the order of generation is that in the first place contraries and obstacles have to be removed. Thus the farmer first purifies the soil, and afterwards sows his seed, according to Jer. ”

“ The vine, absorbing by its leaves, a much greater portion of its nutritive principles than by its roots, these leaves and branches, if left, would absorb a much greater portion of sap than the heat would elaborate, and hence would result the immaturity of the grape. The same principles will not apply in a hotter climate, and a drier season and soil ”

“ A grape, however good it may be in quality, is not fit for general cultivation if seriously affected with any of these diseases. Nothing can be more discouraging to the grape-grower than to see his vines one day rich in the promise of an abundant crop, and a few days afterwards see two-thirds or three-fourths swept away by disease. It is because I have so often felt this bitter disappointment, that I would warn my readers against planting varieties subject to them. ”

“ It is very fortunate, therefore, that we have varieties which do not suffer from these diseases, or only in a very slight degree; and my advice to the beginner in grape-culture would be, "not to plant largely of any variety which is subject to disease." Men may talk about sulphuring, and dusting their vines with sulphur through bellows; but I would rather have vines which will bear a good crop without these windy appliances. ”

“ One man goes through the rows, and bends the canes to the ground along the trellis, while another follows with the spade, and throws earth enough on them to hold them in their places. Afterwards, I run a plough through the rows, and cover them up completely. In the spring when all danger from frost is over, I take a so-called spading fork, and lift the vines. The entire cost of covering an acre of grape vines and taking them up again in spring, will not exceed $10; surely a trifling expense, if we can thereby ensure a full crop. ”

“ But vines grow much better on the sunny hills of France, Spain, and Germany, and the wine which can there be made with the same labour is far more plentiful and immensely better in quality. Those, then, who want to make wine had much better remove to the continent, or, still better, let the French, Spaniards, and Germans produce wine for us. In England we have good soil and a moist climate fitted for growing grass, and the best thing which our farmers can do is to raise cattle and produce plenty of milk, butter, and cheese. ”

“ But, while I am fully aware of the importance of grape-culture everywhere, I cannot help but believe that the southwest will take the preference in grape-growing over the eastern and northern States. We have the advantages of longer seasons and a warmer climate, generally of richer soil, of cheaper lands; we can cultivate varieties which cannot be grown by our eastern brethren, and therefore all the chances are on our side. ”

“ The French writers have never, therefore, referred to their propagation by seed, the numerous varieties of vines which at this day cover a portion of Europe; nor, indeed, does it appear to be necessary, for daily experience shows, that to effect a change in the physical appearance of the vine, and still more, in the qualities of its fruits; it is only necessary to change the circumstances in which it is placed, as regards climate, or soil and situation. ”

“ The evolution of American grapes began with the opening of the nineteenth century, about the only accounts of grapes during the eighteenth century worthy of note being those of John Lawson, 1714; Robert Beverly, 1722; Col. Robert Bolling, 1765; Edward Antill, 1769; and Peter Legaux, 1800. All of these writers excepting Lawson were concerned with European grapes, and their relations to grape-growing were therefore discussed in the chapter on the Old World grape. It remains, however, to call attention to such statements as were made by them of American grapes. ”

“ Of this last kind the smaller one is the best, but difficult to please in its choice; in a rich earth it is apt to rot, while in a thin soil it will come to nothing at all: in its fastidiousness it requires a soil of middling quality, and hence it is that it is so commonly found on the hills of the Sabine territory. Its grape is unsightly in appearance, but has a very pleasant flavour: if it is not gathered at the very moment that it is ripe, it will fall, even before it decays. ”

“ The vines are of only medium vigor, are not hardy, are fruitful only under the most favorable conditions, and are very subject to mildew. In New York neither wood nor roots ripen well in the average season and the variety is a most difficult one for nurserymen to handle. That it succeeds only on certain soils is known but data are not at hand to determine what conditions of soil suit it best. The soil on which the vines of this Station are growing is a rather heavy, rich clay and Mills makes a very fair growth here. ”

“ It is one of those varieties which color early, but should hang a long time after coloring, to attain its full perfection. Here it is at least very good; makes an excellent wine, and, if we take into consideration its enormous productiveness, its vigor and adaptability to all soils and climates, we must acknowledge that as yet it stands without a rival, and will be a safe investment almost anywhere. Our long summers bring it to a perfection of which our Eastern friends have no idea, until they try it here. It will do well in almost any soil. ”

“ Nay, grape-culture bids fair to extend into Minnesota, a country which was considered too cold for almost anything except oats, pines, wolves, bears, and specimens of daring humanity encased in triple wool. We begin to find out that we have varieties which will stand almost anything if they are only somewhat protected in winter. It was formerly believed that only certain favored locations and soils in each State would produce good grapes—for instance, sunny hillsides along large streams; now we begin to see that we can grow some varieties of grape on almost any soil. ”

“ As the selection of a proper location is of vast importance, and one of the main conditions of success, great care and judgment should be exercised in the choice. Some varieties of grapes may be grown on almost any soil, it is true; but even they will show a vast difference in the quality of the fruit, even if the quantity were satisfactory; on indifferent soil, and in an inferior location. Everybody should grow grapes enough for his own use, who owns an acre of ground, but every one cannot grow them and make the most delicious wine. ”

“ It can be grown in as high a latitude as any of our native grapes but it blooms so early in the spring that the blossoms are often caught by late frosts in northern climates. The immunity of Clinton to phylloxera led to its being planted very largely in France some years ago but it has now been discarded for better direct producers in that country. The defects of the variety are: The fruit is too small and sour and the seeds and skins too prominent for a market grape and the wine is not of high quality, being too raucous, though the harshness disappears somewhat with age. ”

“ In soils to which it is not adapted berries and bunches are small and the latter are loose and straggling. But in spite of its defects Dutchess should not be discarded by the grape-lover for there are few grapes better for the table and that will take its place as a pure-flavored, refreshing, juicy grape. It is sweet and rich and yet does not cloy the appetite; the flesh is translucent, sparkling, fine-grained and tender; the seeds are small, few and part readily from the pulp; the skin is thin yet tough enough for good keeping but not so much so as to be objectionable in eating. ”

“ The substance of what the French writers have said on this point, amounts to this:—You have, already, extensive and excellent vineyards, and in the lapse of ages, each variety has found out the soil and situation which fits it best or has found out the soil and situation which fits it best, or has become naturalized to the climate and soil where it grows. Choose your plants from the best in your own neighbourhood, attend to their cultivation, and to the fermentation of your wine, and you will have the best your land is capable of producing. ”

“ But there is another consideration, which I cannot urge too strongly upon my readers, and which will do much to make grape-growing and wine-making easy. It is the forming of grape colonies, of grape-growers' villages. The advantages of such a colony will be easily seen. If each one has a small piece of suitable land, (and he does not need a large one to follow grape-growing) , the neighbors can easily assist each other in ploughing and sub-soiling; they will be able to do with fewer work animals, as they can hitch together, and first prepare the soil for one and then for the other ”

“ But the weaknesses attributed to Campbell Early do not wholly explain why so good a variety has seemingly failed to meet expectations. Can it be that the fault is with the American grape-grower more than with the grape? American growers are not yet willing to give varieties of grapes the particular care that each may need for its best development, but seemingly prefer to grow those sorts which are cosmopolitan as to environment and which will thrive under a general treatment. ”

“ Charley smiled pleasantly as Suzon came over to him again. "You've answered the question," he said, "and struck the thing at the centre. Which is it? The difficulty to decide which has divided the world. If it's only a physical craving, it means that we are materialists naturally, and that the soil from which the grape came is the soil that's in us; that it is the body feeding on itself all the time; that like returns to like, and we live a little together, and then mould together for ever and ever, amen. ”

“ The beauty of the crop, the merriment of the gatherers, the genial effects of the grape when it has gone through the usual process of conversion, gave, as is still the case in all wine-producing countries, a holiday character to the whole course of cultivation. All other important crops contribute in some way to supply the actual needs of life: the vine alone represents distinctly its enjoyments. ”

“ Let us hope that a better spirit may prevail, that they will in time begin to see their own interest, and welcome with open arms every one who can assist them in developing the natural advantages of their lands. The grape can only flourish on free soil, and by free intelligent labor. ”

“ There are thousands upon thousands of acres of the best grape lands yet to be had in the West, especially in Missouri, at a merely nominal price, which would be well adapted for settlements of that kind; where the virgin soil yet waits only the bidding of intelligent labor—of enterprising and industrious men—to bring forth the richest fruits. There is room for all—may it soon be filled with willing hearts to undertake the task. ”

“ He who wishes to see the vintages of books and poems—the laughing, joking, singing festivals amid the vines, which we are accustomed to consider the harvests of the grape—must betake him to the multitudinous patches of peasant property, in which neighbor helps neighbor to gather in the crop, and upon which whole families labor merrily together, as much for the amusement of the thing, and from good neighborly feeling, as in consideration of francs and sous. ”

“ Truly, the time is not far distant—of which we hardly dared to dream ten years ago—and which we then thought we would never live to see; when every American citizen can indulge in a daily glass of that glorious gift of God to man, pure, light wine; and the American nation shall become a really temperate people.
And there is room for all. Let every one further the cause of grape-culture. The laborer by producing the grapes and wine; the mechanic by inventions; the law-giver by making laws furthering its culture, and the consumption of it ”