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The anatomy of violence: comparing revolutionary terror and modern domestic extremism
In Brief
- Political violence, whether revolutionary or extremist, relies on creating an existential enemy whose elimination is deemed a political necessity.
- Revolutionary terror employs a comprehensive, forward-looking state vision, whereas modern extremism is fueled by conspiratorial theories focused on hidden, malevolent forces corrupting the present.
- Both forms radically redefine justice: Robespierre equated terror with 'indomitable justice,' paralleled by modern terrorists who use the 'slaughter of innocents' for psychological impact ('armed propaganda').
- Large-scale political upheaval subjects the individual to immense psychological pressure, demanding conformity and often leading to the symbolic or literal sacrifice of one's identity.
Main authors
Political violence, whether wielded by a revolutionary state or a modern extremist cell, represents a fundamental rupture in the social contract. Such moments force a society to confront its foundational principles, often creating an irreconcilable chasm between established loyalties and the demands of a new, violent order [1, 2]. Historical precedents, such as the French Revolution, and contemporary challenges, like domestic terrorism, reveal common mechanics in the justification and application of force, despite their vastly different scales and contexts [3, 4]. Both phenomena are underpinned by potent ideologies that seek to legitimize what would otherwise be considered criminal acts, transforming them into perceived political necessities [5, 6].
An examination of revolutionary terror alongside modern domestic extremism highlights a shared logic. Both rely on the creation of an enemy, portrayed as an existential threat, whose elimination is framed as essential for survival or progress [7]. The revolutionary government, born from upheaval, must define itself against the old order and its adherents, leading to a systematic application of terror in the name of virtue and justice [8]. Similarly, modern extremists, often fueled by conspiracy theories, identify specific people and organizations as conspirators whose removal is seen as the only path to safety and righteousness . While one operates with the full apparatus of a nascent state and the other from the fringes of society, both forms of violence ultimately challenge the very definition of humanity and justice, forcing individuals into unbearable choices and leaving societies to grapple with the aftermath [9, 10, 11].
The Ideological Engine of Violence
At the core of any sustained political violence is a powerful ideological framework that provides both motive and justification. For revolutionary movements, this ideology is often a comprehensive and forward-looking vision for a new social order, presented as a historical inevitability [12]. This new worldview aims to capture state power by first capturing the political consciousness of the masses, moving them from dissent into organized action [13, 14]. The ultimate goal is the destruction of the existing state to substitute it with a fundamentally different one, a process requiring disciplined followers united by a coherent revolutionary theory [15, 16]. This process necessitates a ruthless struggle against any internal dissent that might dilute the movement's revolutionary purpose [17, 18].
In contrast, the ideological engine of modern domestic extremism often runs on conspiratorial thinking, which provides an alternative, clandestine explanation for societal problems . While revolutionary theory looks to build a new future, conspiracy theories focus on a hidden, malevolent force corrupting the present . The FBI assesses that such theories are not merely background beliefs but active motivators that encourage the targeting of specific people, places, and organizations perceived as being part of the alleged conspiracy . These narratives create a sense of existential threat that can, in the minds of extremists, only be stopped through drastic, often violent, means .
Despite these differences, both ideological forms serve a similar function: they create a closed moral universe for their adherents. The French Revolution, for instance, was depicted as giving birth to a 'new life' for its followers, absolving them of their past and rebaptizing them as 'Daughters of the Revolution' . This transformation is mirrored in the way conspiracy theories can provide followers with a sense of purpose and belonging, binding them into a community that possesses a secret, urgent truth. The modern information environment, particularly the internet, has exponentially increased the volume and reach of this content, allowing theories to spread and evolve rapidly through a form of 'crowd-sourcing' that reinforces extremist views [19, 20].
Redefining Justice, Legitimizing Terror
A crucial step in the perpetration of political violence is the radical redefinition of justice. Established legal and moral norms are cast aside and replaced with a new logic that serves the movement's aims. During the French Revolution, Maximilien Robespierre articulated this principle by explicitly linking virtue with terror, arguing that terror was nothing more than 'swift, severe and indomitable justice' . This perspective held that for the new republic to survive, its enemies had to be eliminated without hesitation; the life of the guilty king, for example, was seen as a threat to every other life in France . Such outrages are often rationalized as an unavoidable, if lamentable, consequence of the oppression that preceded the revolution [21].
Modern terrorism operates on a parallel, albeit non-state, redefinition of justice. Its violence is calculated to achieve political objectives through psychological impact, rather than direct military victory [22]. A key characteristic is the deliberate targeting of non-combatants, as there are far more 'innocents' accessible to terrorists than strategic targets [23]. The media is a critical component of this strategy, as the impression created by the crime serves as the link between the terrorist, the victim, and the intended target audience, turning violence into a form of 'armed propaganda' [24]. This calculated cruelty is intended to spread terror and uncertainty among free nations .
The source of this redefined justice marks a key distinction between the two forms of violence. Revolutionary terror is an instrument of a nascent state, legitimized by a new governing theory and wielded by those in authority . It is a centralized and systematic policy. In contrast, the violence of modern domestic extremists stems from individuals or small groups acting in opposition to the state, driven by ideologies that view the established order as illegitimate [25]. While one claims the authority to remake society through force, the other seeks to dismantle it from the outside. Yet, both ultimately justify bloodshed by positing a higher moral purpose that supersedes conventional laws and ethics [26, 27].
The Individual in the Crucible of Conflict
Large-scale political violence forces immense psychological pressure onto individuals, creating a crucible where identity, loyalty, and honor are tested. During periods of revolutionary terror, the choice is often stark: adapt to the new regime or face annihilation. This conflict is vividly captured in the dilemma of those from the old aristocracy, for whom centuries of tradition and family honor stood in direct opposition to the demands of the revolution . Survival could necessitate a public disavowal of one's entire heritage, a symbolic death of the old self to be reborn into the new political order . This personal transformation was not merely a private decision but a public performance, scrutinized by crowds whose gazes could feel like a 'shameful blow' .
The experience for the individual is one of profound isolation and terror, facing a collective animated by cruelty and inhuman curiosity . The revolutionary state demands total submission, and leaders explicitly seek to identify and provide scapegoats to end the population's anxiety and 'painful vacillation,' thereby cementing their own authority [28]. This dynamic, as observed by a character in 'A Marriage Under the Terror,' reveals a dark aspect of human nature, where an appetite for violence grows with its application, turning formerly mild individuals into agents of a bloodthirsty system [29].
While modern domestic extremism does not involve a state-level reorganization of society, it creates a similar 'us versus them' dynamic that puts individuals under immense ideological pressure. Extremist movements thrive by building a coherent group of dedicated revolutionaries, which requires cultivating a specific mindset and expelling those who do not conform . The psychological appeal of these groups often lies in their claim to provide clarity and purpose in a confusing world . For those who resist tyranny in any form, political violence can be seen as a deeply personal act of resistance against 'unbearable social iniquities,' an ideal superior to passive submission . Whether as a victim of state terror or a perpetrator of extremist violence, the individual is pushed to an extreme, forced to navigate a world where the moral landscape has been violently redrawn [30].
Political violence, in its revolutionary and extremist manifestations, is fundamentally an exercise in ideological warfare where force is used to impose a new reality. The terror of the French Revolution and the violence of modern domestic extremists, though separated by centuries and context, both draw their power from ideologies that sanctify their actions [31]. They achieve this by redefining justice to serve their political programs, whether it is Robespierre’s equation of terror with virtue or an extremist’s belief that violence is the only way to stop a conspiracy . This process inevitably entraps individuals in a terrifying moral landscape, where past allegiances become crimes and survival may demand the sacrifice of one's identity .
Ultimately, the methods may differ—one employing the organized power of a new state, the other the fragmented anger of those outside it—but the outcome is a shared legacy of destruction. The systemic violence of a revolution can become a 'black page in the history of mankind' , while the 'slaughter of innocents' by modern terrorists flies in the face of civilization . In the aftermath of such events, whether in post-revolutionary France or in Oklahoma City, societies are left to mourn the dead, rebuild what was broken, and reflect on the immense cost of ideologies that seek to achieve their ends through bloodshed .
