The ghost of the trench: How world war I doctrine constrains 21st-century strategic thinking

“ Science and the base malignity of our latest adversaries have debased modern warfare, as waged by them, from its ancient dignity and honour; and they have conducted it so as to make it difficult to believe that from the Kaiser down to the subaltern on land and the petty officer at sea that nation can produce a single gentleman. ”

“ But it is equally untrue to tell of modern warfare waged with picric acid and electric wires in the same spirit. The romance and glamour of warfare in the past are grinning lies when transferred to latter-day warfare, where long-drawn fronts of flesh and blood are opposed to machines of precision and the triumphs of the chemical laboratory. The anachronism becomes nothing less than the deliberate falsification of history. Dynamite and machine-guns, not the writer, have turned the "Field of Honor" into a "Human Slaughter-House," where regiments are wiped out by pressing an electric button. ”

“ Section commanders are responsible that the men under their command have sufficient standing room for the purpose of firing over the parapet. It is very important to insure that the men have a clear field of fire, and are able not only to see the enemy's trenches but also the ground in the immediate vicinity of their own trench. It is of the greatest importance to arrange that the men can fire comfortably from the parapet and that they can get the butt comfortably into the hollow of the shoulder when the rifle is resting on the parapet. ”

“ The topography of the trenches in the platoon section and the adjoining sections, including the approaches. The location of the accessory defenses, listening and observation posts, machine-gun positions, snipers' positions, trench mortar positions, etc.
(d) The tactical disposition in the sector and the general disposition of the company.
(e) The location of loopholes.
(f) The places of especial danger in order that he may stay away from them.
4. Rifles are inspected twice daily. Every precaution is taken to keep the rifle and ammunition free from mud.
5. There is a gas helmet parade daily. ”

“ He asks himself always, "Is is soldierly?" and never "Is it common-sense?" He is at present in trouble with his superior officer for having frozen on to his ace of trumps long after he should have parted with it. But those text-books say, "Keep your best forces in reserve," and the little trumps must needs be put in the firing line first.
As to the other officers of your acquaintance, each is making merry, as the season demands, in his own fashion. One is studying, not for the first time, a map on the wall showing the inner truth of the currents in the Pacific ”

“ For a long time both the Allies and the Hun suffered from a disease called “Trenchitis,” induced by an intensive experience of high explosive and machine-gun bullets. If a force wished to defend itself, it produced picks and shovels and dug itself in. If it wished to attack, it dug an advanced “jumping-off” trench in the dead of night, approached by saps and tunnels, and so made the open space to be covered in the assault as narrow as possible. This is a useful and economical way of fighting, especially when your troops are not sufficiently numerous to warrant prodigality. ”

“ During the artillery bombardment few men are left in the fire trenches. The remainder of the garrison is held under cover a short distance to the rear. This cover is provided by a system of dugouts connected with the fire trench through underground passageways that lead to the communication trench. This arrangement is shown in Plate 1. ”

“ The small trucks, pushed by men, will bring the torpedoes and other munitions as far as possible, but when the narrowness of the excavations prevents this, supplies must be carried by hand to the most advanced lines. This work, which is very laborious, should be left, whenever possible, to men drawn from regiments in the rear which are not intended to take part in the impending attack. For the last year North African burros have been used for carrying the munitions through the communication trenches. They are hardy animals, easy to drive, and they save the troops a great deal of labour. ”

“ Written notes and plans should therefore be handed over to a platoon commander taking over for the first time.
Every man is required to see that he has a good firing position for all directions. Section commanders must satisfy themselves that men have done this, and report. The whole line "Stands to Arms" during the hour before dawn.
After dark, unless the moon is bright, rifles should be left in firing position on the parapet. All men not on sentry should keep rifles, with bayonets fixed, in the trench.
[Pg 120]
Routine
1. Double sentinel posts are established in each bay. ”

“ Repairs will have to be made daily. The widening of trenches in the making of repairs should be strictly forbidden. Under no circumstances must they be altered in any manner except on the order of the company commander.
Platoon commanders will go over every part of the trench several times daily with the squad leaders of the various sections and decide upon the repairs and improvements to be made. A complete and thorough police will be made prior to being relieved. All refuse will be removed. ”

“ COOPERATION BETWEEN ARTILLERY, INFANTRY, MACHINE-GUN COMPANIES, AND TRENCH MORTAR BATTERIES.—The defense of any line depends largely on the cordial cooperation of all officers responsible for the different means of defense. Every opportunity is to be taken by officers of artillery, infantry, machine-gun companies, and trench mortar batteries of becoming personally acquainted with each other and gaining a knowledge of each other's methods. ”

“ Snipers
The enemy's sojourn in the trenches should be made as disagreeable to him as possible. He must be kept continually on the alert. Our operations must be made a constant menace to him. It is in this way that casualties are effected and he is gradually worn out. One of the best methods of accomplishing all of the above is the employment of snipers, who are specially selected and trained in this branch of trench warfare.
The snipers are on duty all day, but they have their nights in bed. ”

“ As it does not arrive at fixed hours like the bombardment, the enemy cannot continually avoid it by taking refuge in his dugouts and shelters; when he is moving about a trench which is subject to rifle grenading he must be [Pg 131] continually on the alert. This perpetual menace, hour in and hour out, day in and day out, renders his sojourn in the trenches extremely disagreeable.
Before rifle grenades are thrown careful observation of the opposing trench must have been made to determine the point where the grenade is likely to do the greatest damage. ”

“ The division, the brigade, the regiment, and even the battalion, have each to constitute reserves either to ensure success or to guard against possible failures in their offensive. In this warfare of position, even more perhaps than in one of movement, the necessity of always having troops near at hand, ready to repel counter-attacks, is imperative, owing to the fact that every repulse is followed by the enemy’s occupation of a part of the line of defence which would have to be retaken later with great losses should the enemy be given time to organize themselves therein. ”

“ Shrapnel is still bursting, scattering its hail around us. And how strange and subtle are the ways of modern warfare, where death comes thus seeking us out of invisible depths, depths of a horizon that looks like white cotton wool; death launched at us by men whom we can see no more than they can see us, launched blindly, yet in the certainty of finding us.
We reach the car just as it has finished turning; we jump in, and off our car goes at full speed, all open. We pass the occupied trenches like a hurricane; this time heads are scarcely raised because of the shower of shrapnel. ”

“ The greatest change in the battle-fields of the future, as compared with those of a few years ago, will be found346 in the development and increased strength of the artillery. A modern army, when it takes up a position, has miles of front almost entirely occupied with guns, and the guns have to fire over the infantry, because there is no room for such numbers of guns to be used in any other way. ”

“ That is why France is the most overcrowded and best-fed country in the world to-day.
Modern transportation has also made possible—which in warfare means indispensable—the intensive employment of heavy artillery. We use siege guns to-day where yesterday we employed eighteen-pounders and seventy-fives. That involves the construction of complicated railroad systems—tracks, sidings, locomotives, ammunition-wagons—all over the country, operating forward and sideways behind the line. ”

“ AS in boxing, fencing, saber and bayonet exercises, there are comparatively few postures, guards, thrusts and strokes, so in warfare, whether the numbers be large or small, the arms most modern or ancient, there are just a few principles to whose steady adherence and skilful manipulation all success is due. ”

“ It is true that the modern Lee-Enfield and Mauser claim to be the most precise and deadly weapons of destruction ever devised. But they were intended for proper, gentlemanly warfare, with the opposing sides set out in straight lines, a convenient distance apart. In the hand-to-hand butchery which calls itself war to-day, the rifle is rapidly becoming démodé. For long ranges you require machine-guns; for short, bombs and hand-grenades. Can you empty a cottage by firing a single rifle-shot in at the door? ”

“ In warfare your best teacher is your opponent. Nowadays we have, on each side of No Man’s Land, assimilated one another’s methods. Moreover, trench warfare of to-day has developed into a fluid affair. For one thing, trench-mortars, tanks, and intensive artillery bombardments can make hay of the most elaborate defensive works. You can no longer surround yourself with barbed wire and go comfortably [130] to bed, secure in the knowledge that your opponent cannot possibly get at you without a long and laborious artillery preparation. ”

“ By reason of the great difficulties they experienced in getting heavy artillery up into the mountains the Italians have adopted trench mortars which fire very large projectiles to a considerable distance, and they have succeeded in constructing some examples which will throw heavy torpedoes three and four kilometres.
“Tanks” (Artillery of Assault) . Tanks were first used by the British, to whom they have rendered very valuable service. They have not only been of great assistance to their infantry, but have also produced a very depressing effect on the enemy’s morale. ”

“ It seems to me that the ideal training for a soldier in the future will be that which makes every man more or less a scout, taught to use common sense and all five of his other senses, and, above all, to become a good rifle shot, for, all due respect to the artillery, it is the man with rifle who counts in battle. It is surely a mistake to give a man three year' drill and only three months at the rifle butts and then call him a soldier, when he could meet modern conditions far better with three years of rifle and three months' of drill. ”

“ I dread to see savages become expert with the rifle while the average white boy does not know one end of a gun from the other. To shoot, properly with a rifle one must be trained to it from his youth up.
The scout nowadays must have many of the faculties that Daniel Boone had and a good military training in addition. Modern guns and modern ranges have changed the whole scope of his work. One reason why the trained scout will be in greater demand in the future is that nights are going to count for as much as, and perhaps more than, days in the warfare of the future. ”

“ Immediately behind the zone of mutual observation, all the humming activities of arms are proceeding with a freedom unknown in the days of trench warfare, partly because this is the nature of the war of movement and partly because, like other services, the air squadrons are dispersed and the German airmen cannot obtain more than local and momentary equality. ”

“ Their mobility enables them to dodge the fire of the enemy’s artillery. These cars can be much more useful in open field operations than in trench warfare. They will be especially useful as a help to cavalry when the latter can once more be used.
Every regiment of infantry is now provided with a section of three 37 mm. guns which being light, easy to move, and very accurate are employed principally, either all together or in the proportion of one to each battalion, against machine-guns. ”

“ That is the appalling speed which the air has brought into modern warfare; the speed of the attack. The speed of the attack, compared with the attack of an army, is as the speed of a motor-car to that of a four-in-hand. In the next war you will find that any town within reach of an aerodrome can be bombed within the first five minutes of war to an extent inconceivable in the last War, and the question is, Whose morale will be shattered quickest by that preliminary bombing? ”

“ Very often the Germans aim at the tanks rather than at the pilot, as the former are easier to hit and the result is the same.
2. Use and scope of aviation. Our opinion is that during the present war no real success can be obtained without the help of numerous and daring aviators. During the days preceding an attack (in the trench war) or in order to hide the movements of the troops (in the open field) it is of the utmost necessity to maintain the supremacy33 in the air. The enemy’s aviation must be entirely blinded. Not one enemy machine must pass over the lines. ”

“ I had had no experience in warfare; but the history of our Earth had told me much of it. The enlisting and training of huge armies of men; arming them; artillery; naval and air forces; commissary and supplies; a gigantic business organization to equip, move and maintain millions of fighting men.
Ancient warfare! This—our modern way—was indeed dissimilar. It was, from most aspects, simplicity itself. We had no need of men in great numbers. I found something like a single thousand of men being organized and trained. And equipped with weapons to outward aspects comparatively simple. ”

“ Warfare, with modern weapons by which a man single-handed might destroy a city—is no longer a matter of men. The citizen—unarmed—united in sentiment and desire with a million of his kind—becomes the real ruler. You cannot—because you have a weapon—destroy a million of your brothers.
We realized this. And in the ultimate decision—the popular fancy almost—of our publics—lay our real success or downfall.
Tarrano in the popular mind had a tremendous hold. Dispatches from Earth made it plain that upon every street level the people were discussing him. ”

“ And that won’t be done, Wilkins, by leaving War alone. War, war with modern machines, is a damned great horrible trampling monster, a filthy thing, an indecency; we aren’t doing anything heroic, we are trying to lift a foul stupidity off the earth, we are engaged in a colossal sanitary job. These men who go for us into the trenches, they come back with no illusions. They know how dirty and monstrous it is. They are like men who have gone down for the sake of the people they love to clear out a choked drain. They have no illusions about being glorified. ”

“ In this modern warfare there are many trials and experiences unimagined before, which wear down the actual will-power of the men who undergo them. When troops are forced [126] to sit in a trench under the most terrific shell-fire, the nerve-racking noise, the sight of their comrades and their defences being blown to atoms, and the constant fear that they themselves will be the next to go, all deprive the ordinary mind of vital initiative. Having lost the active mental powers that a human being possesses, they are reduced to the level of machines. ”

“ The student of tactics soon realizes the difference between fighting a battle in imagination and in reality. Imagination cannot bring home to any human brain the extent to which the chess-board dispositions of modern strategy are tempered by the actualities of modern fighting—in other words, by the strain upon the human machine. All the five senses are affected—hearing, by the appalling din; seeing, by the spectacle of a [127] whole group of human beings blown to shreds; smelling, by the reek of gas and explosives ”

“ The reinforcement by the second wave and the disorganization produced by the assault lead to a mixture of units in the trenches of the first position. Before starting out to the assault of the next trench it is necessary that order be restored. When this is accomplished the attack is launched against the second line. In front of the supporting points the combat rages. The men are barely able to hold on the outer edges. ”

“ No matter how well the infantry assault on the enemy's fire trenches may be conducted, it rarely succeeds in occupying the hostile position throughout its entire length. Casualties, loss of direction, and unexpected obstacles encountered are bound to break up the assaulting line more or less, thereby leaving gaps in the captured position. Furthermore the attack on a line of trenches takes place on a relatively small front by a large number of men. When the trenches are finally reached and a lodgment effected there will be great overcrowding. ”

“ The machine system gives startling results—in a short campaign. But when it comes to an endurance contest, to the long, long strains of trench warfare, something other than drill and organization is necessary, something that will rouse the human being to the last atom of effort that he has in him. When men must stand up to their waists in icy water, live in the inferno of constant bombardment, not for hours and days, but for weeks and months, something other than discipline is needed to keep them sufficiently alive to be of use. ”

“ Of course, the army must be equipped in the modern way and fought in the modern way with all the resources of science, with aeroplanes, bombs, motor transport, and heavy artillery. But without the full devotion of the individual, without the coöperation of his esprit, the army would be a dead machine, especially in this nerve-rending endurance contest of the trenches. Here is the Latin idea, which is absolutely opposed to the German machine theory of war.
The German staff has done marvels with its machine. ”

“ Whether it will be possible to get armies to advance under heavy fire after the officers have been killed is doubtful, when we remember that modern armies consist of the whole population, cowards and brave men alike, and that regimental cohesion is weakened by the sudden infusion of an overwhelming proportion of reserve men at the last moment. ”

“ The purpose of this book is to show to the American officers, and also to the civilians who take an interest in war matters, how a large army on the European Front in the last quarter of the year 1917 is made up.
In the course of general considerations we have explained what is meant by the words “strategy and tactics”; we have described those interior lines which have been of such powerful assistance to Germany; we have dwelt on the composition of the large units of an army, and more especially on that of a division as a fighting unit. ”

“ The work involved in devising suitable plans is too much like drudgery to be welcome to those who undertake it. All the same it has to be done: and surely no one will care to deny that the fleet which has practised in quiet years the system that must be followed in war will start with a great advantage on its side when it is at last confronted with the stern realities of naval warfare. ”