Sami Khalaf Hamarneh

“ Whitebread was an active contributor to the literature of the health field in various periodicals, as well as in pamphlets issued by the Museum and other governmental agencies (see bibliography) . His literary contributions, guided by the exhibits he designed and the collections he acquired, were focused on the Division’s collections, such as primitive and psychic medicine and warnings against reliance on magic and superstitions in treatment, medical oddities, and the utilization of drugs of animal origin, both past and present. ”

“ Henry Gustav Beyer, the second honorary curator of the Section of Materia Medica (1884-1887) . (Photo courtesy of American Physiological Society.)
In spite of the apparent emphasis on the displaying of drugs, the first curator of the Section had envisioned that the exhibits eventually would embrace the entire field of the healing arts. In the Smithsonian Annual Report for 1883, Dr. Flint noted that “in the establishment of a museum designed to illustrate man and his environment, it is proper that the materials and methods used for the prevention and cure of disease should have a place.” ”

“ Flint’s credit that from its early conception, first as Section of Materia Medica and thereafter as Division of Medicine, he planned for an all-embracing exhibition and reference collection of the medical sciences. Until the end of the 19th century and the early years of the 20th century, crude drugs as well as primitive and magic medicine held a more prominent place than medical instruments in the exhibits and collections. ”

“ Al-Zahrāwī divides his surgical treatise into three sections (abwāb) . In the first section (56 chapters) 14 he elaborates upon the uses and disadvantages of cautery in general. And on the ground that "fire touches only the ailing part ... without causing much damage to surrounding area," as caustic medicine does, he prefers cautery by fire (al-kay bi al-nār) to cautery by medicine (bi al-dawā) .15 This, he adds, "became clear to us through lifelong experience, diligent practice, and thorough investigations of facts."16 ”

“ Flint’s intention, besides presenting an educational display on the history of the medical arts, to warn the public against the perils of quackery and the faults of folk medicine, as well as to expose evils in drug adulteration. Today, we can see actual fulfillment of these intentions in the present exhibit at the medical gallery which has been executed recently on the basis of scientific, historical research. ”

“ The few examples of illustrations of surgical instruments given here indicate that the Arabic manuscripts, in general, have preserved the original, oriental, artistic features of the drawings in a way that has been overlooked in Latin and vernacular versions of al-Taṣrīf.
In presenting his personal observations and original ideas on surgery late in life, al-Zahrāwī, for the most part, was inspired by a thorough acquaintance with Greek and Arabic medical literature supplemented by lifelong intelligent observation and experience. ”

“ Curator Whitebread’s first year was an active and challenging one, for in this new position he began to develop a deep interest in the history of the healing arts. He made a number of important acquisitions, most of them pertaining to pharmaceutical products, synthetic chemicals and crude drugs. He found that many specimens from the older drug collections had deteriorated to such an extent as to be worthless, and he began replacing them with freshly marketed drugs. ”

“ Al-Zahrāwī also devised and depicted many kinds and shapes of splints for use in simple and compound fractures of the head, shoulders, arms, fingers, etc. (see fig. 20) . For example, in discussing the reduction of the humerus, he recommends a splint consisting of a smooth, thin stick bent in the shape of a bow with two strings, each attached to one end of the stick (fig. 21) . The injured bone is then placed in the middle of the bent splint for reduction while the patient is seated on a chair. Tying is applied only when there is no "hot" swelling (chapter 11) . ”

“ Al-Zahrāwī gently refutes the superstition that cautery is "good only in springtime," and states that under the right conditions of the body’s humors it could be used in all seasons."17 Although he recommends cautery rather highly, he never minimizes the importance of treatment by drugs. Actually, he encourages the use of drugs, before, with, and after cauterization.18 For example, in chapter 16 on "the cauterization of eyelid when its hair grows reversedly into the eye," he recommends treatment by cautery and by medicine. ”

“ This Division now has the largest collection in the Western Hemisphere of historical objects which are related to the healing arts. The reference collections are available to the researcher and scholar, and the exhibits are intended for pleasure and educational purposes in these fields. The plans for expansion have no limitation as we keep pace with man’s progress in the medical sciences and continue to collect materials that contributed to the historical development in the fight against diseases and the attempts to secure better health for everyone. ”

“ Bottom, from Argellata 1531, courtesy National Library of Medicine.
The question arises as to whether al-Zahrāwī did any human dissection. The answer is uncertain because our knowledge of his life is fragmentary. However, he gives no clue to the dissection of humans in any of the 30 treatises of al-Taṣrīf—his only known writings—and there is no evidence that he practiced it in secret. His upright attitude as a Muslim who repeatedly emphasized his adherence to his faith suggests that he relied completely on animal dissection and the writings of his Greek-Roman and Islamic predecessors. ”

“ This magnificent international fair commemorated the hundredth anniversary of the adoption of the Declaration of Independence. The finest exhibits of 30 foreign countries and various States of the Union participating in the fair were finally donated to the Smithsonian Institution as the official depository of historical and archeological objects for this country. As a result, the Institution’s collections increased to an extent far beyond the capacity of the first Smithsonian building. ”

“ Such description of the use of a "bladder syringe" in the late 10th century clearly points to the practical and interesting approach to surgery in al-Taṣrīf. Moreover, his description of the removal of a stone from the bladder—an operation we now call lithotomy—is considered a contribution to bladder surgery.
One of the earliest recorded operations for the extractions of two dead fetuses from the womb is clearly described in chapter 76. The account of this case shows not only al-Zahrāwī’s intelligent approach as a shrewd observer but also his clinical and surgical ability. ”

“ In 1926, original patent models including those related to pharmacy, medicine, and dentistry, were transferred from the U.S. Patent Office to the National Museum. These patent models, together with other apothecary tools and the machines used in drug production took up most of the available space. This unfortunate situation led Dr. Whitebread to turn down significant medical and pharmaceutical collections offered the Museum between 1927 and 1930. ”

“ Their reorganization of exhibits and collections, their competence and industry, fulfilled the hopes, plans, and purposes laid down by earlier curators for the Division.
Immediately after assuming the responsibilities of the Division and throughout 1953, Mr. Griffenhagen (M.S. in pharmaceutical chemistry from the University of Southern California) undertook to develop the collections still further. He increased the emphasis not only on historical pharmacy, but also on medicine, surgery, and dentistry. He also renovated the exhibits in the medical gallery. ”

“ Physicians in both the Islamic domain and in Christendom for many centuries were hostile to the idea of human dissection for any purpose because of their traditional socio-religious convictions, considering it an unethical and undignified practice. ”

“ Whitebread added a number of specimens of medical-dosage forms and pharmaceutical preparations to the Division’s collections. He also acquired other gifts to complete existing exhibits illustrating the basic principles of the various schools of medicine, such as homeopathy and osteopathy—their methods, tools, and ways of thought. ”

“ The scope of these gifts and acquisitions ranges from electronic resuscitators, microscopes, x-ray equipment, and spectacles, to patent medicines, amulets, apothecary tools, dental instruments, and office material of practitioners.
Figure 20.—Exhibit on spectacles, lorgnettes, optometers, and refraction, completed in 1960. It features a cross section of the Division’s large collection of eyeglasses. (Smithsonian photo 47943-D.)
In the last decade, the interest in the national endeavor for promoting research and scholarship in the history of medicine has increased greatly. ”

“ The former was planned to encompass the collections of materia medica, pharmaceutical equipment, and all material related to the history of pharmacy, toxicology, pharmacology, and biochemistry, as well as the Hall of Health which was opened November 2, 1957, and which emphasizes man’s progressing knowledge of his body and the functions of its major organs. [18] The latter Section was planned to include all that belongs to the development of surgery, medicine, dentistry, and nursing, especially in relation to hospitals. ”

“ The Arabic manuscripts studied for the present article are not the same as those used by Leclerc. See also Leclerc’s monumental work, Histoire de la Médecine Arabe, Paris, 1876, vol. 1, pp. 453-457.
9 Ernst Gurlt, Geschichte der Chirurgie und ihrer Ausübung Volkschirurgie-Alterthum-Mittelalter-Renaissance, Berlin, 1898, vol. 1, pp. 620-649, with more than 100 figures. In the text and illustrations, Gurlt relied upon Leclerc’s translation and modified drawings of the surgical instruments; nevertheless, he presents a brief, systematic study—probably the best so far—of the entire treatise. ”

“ Plans are being made for an elaborate exhibit of weights and balances used in many countries throughout the centuries, their impact on accuracy of dosage and weighing of drugs, and their use in the apothecary art. ”

“ It is enacted by legislation, and thus becomes binding on all who prepare drugs or sell them for medication.” By soliciting the help of various American consuls and Navy officers abroad, about 16 such official pharmacopoeias were collected, making an almost complete international representation of all available, official, drug standards. With these sources of information, Dr. Flint compiled and arranged an international list of materia medica specimens, indicating the authorized preparations of each. ”

“ Flint tried to bring many of his plans for this medical division of the Museum to a practical fulfillment. He devised a program for presenting medical history in a way which would be of interest both to the public and to the profession. In order to best illustrate the history of the healing art, he divided his subject matter into five provisional classifications according to the Report upon the Condition and Progress of the U.S. National Museum during 1898:
1. ”

“ Also added to the Division’s collections was the electrocardiograph used by Dr. Frank E. Wilson of the United States, a pioneer educator in this field. Two temporary exhibits on allergy and surgical dressings were installed in the gallery. In the same year, Curator Griffenhagen published Early American Pharmacies, a catalog on 28 pharmacy restorations in this country. ”

“ The Proceedings, begun in 1878, are intended for the publication, in separate form, of shorter papers from the Museum of Natural History. These are gathered in volumes, octavo in size, with the publication date of each paper recorded in the table of contents of the volume.
In the Bulletin series, the first of which was issued in 1875, appear longer, separate publications consisting of monographs (occasionally in several parts) and volumes in which are collected works on related subjects. ”

“ The Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution agreed to have these lectures published by the Institution in its Miscellaneous Collections. The first lecture given by the Assistant Surgeon of the U.S. Army, “On the [Pg 272] Structure of Cancerous Tumors and the Mode in which Adjacent parts are Invaded,” deserves credit even by current standards of scientific research. [2] Only 10 lectures were given between 1873 and 1890 (see bibliography) , despite the recommendation for at least two every year. [3] ”

“ Holt, L. Emmett. A sketch of the development of the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research. Science (July 6, 1906) , new ser., vol. 24, no. 601, p. 1.
Howell, William H. The American Physiological Society during its first twenty-five years. Pp. 21-22 [biography of Dr. Beyer] in History of the American Physiological Society semicentennial, 1881-1937; Baltimore, 1938.
[Klein, Allen.] He directs pharmacy exhibits at the Smithsonian Institution. Modern Pharmacy (July 1941) , vol. 25, pp. 20-21.
LaWall, Charles H. Ancient pharmacy on display. ”