Wallace Walter Atwood

“ The rate at which the edge of the advancing ice is wasted depends largely on the climate. If, while the rate of advance remains constant, the climate becomes warmer, melting will be more rapid, and the ratio between melting and advance will be increased. The edge of the ice will therefore recede. The same result will follow, if, while temperature remains constant, the atmosphere becomes drier, since this will increase wastage by evaporation. Were the climate to become warmer and drier at the same time, the rate of recession of the ice would be greater than if but one of these changes occurred. ”

“ As the ice of the North American ice sheet advanced, seemingly more rigid when it encountered yielding bodies, and more yielding when it encountered resistant ones, it denuded the surface of its loose and movable materials, and carried them forward. ”

“ Base-level plains and peneplains.—It is important to notice that a plane surface (base-level) developed by streams could only be developed at elevations but slightly above the sea, that is, at levels at which running water ceases to be an effective agent of erosion; for so long as a stream is actively deepening its valley, its tendency is to roughen the area which it drains, not to make it smooth. The Colorado river, flowing through high land, makes a deep gorge. All the streams of the western plateaus have deep valleys, and the manifest result of their action is to roughen the surface ”

“ Not only would the water running over the slopes of a valley wear back its walls, but many other processes conspire to the same end. The wetting and drying, the freezing and the thawing, the roots of plants and the borings of animals, all tend to loosen the material on the slopes or walls of the valleys, and gravity helps the loosened material to descend. Once in the valley bottom, the running water is likely to carry it off, landing it finally in the sea. Thus the growth of the valley is not the result of running water alone, though this is the most important single factor in the process. ”

“ Small lakes and ponds have been drained, the streams whose valleys had been partly filled, have been re-excavating them, and erosion has been going on at all points in the slow way in which it normally proceeds. The most striking example of postglacial erosion is the dalles of the Wisconsin, and even this is but a small gorge for so large a stream. The slight amount of erosion which has been accomplished since the drift was deposited, indicates that the last retreat of the ice, measured in terms of geology and geography, was very recent. ”

“ The heterogeneity of the drift arising from the diverse nature of the rocks which contributed to it is lithological heterogeneity—a term which implies the commingling of materials derived from different rock formations. Thus it is common to find pieces of sandstone, limestone, quartzite, granite, gneiss, schist, etc., intimately commingled in the drift, wherever the ice which produced it passed over formations of these several sorts of rock. ”

“ The powerful pressure of pure ice, which is relatively soft, upon firm hills of rock, which are relatively hard, would effect little. The hills would wear the ice, but the effect of the ice on the hills would be slight. But where the ice is supplied with earthy and stony material derived from the rock itself, the case is different. Under these conditions, the ice, yielding only under great [Pg 81] pressure and as little as may be, rubs its rock-shod base over every opposing surface, and with greatest severity where it meets with greatest resistance. ”

“ A perfect example of a valley train does not occur within the region here discussed. There is such a train starting at the moraine where it crosses the Wisconsin river above Prairie du Sac, and extending down that valley to the Mississippi, but at its head this valley train is wide and has the appearance of an overwash plain, rather than a valley train. Farther from the moraine, however, it narrows, and assumes the normal characteristics of a valley train. It is the gravel and sand of this formation which underlies Sauk Prairie, and its topographic continuation to the westward. ”

“ Another characteristic of glacial drift, and one which clearly distinguishes it from all other formations with which it might be confounded, is easily understood from its method of formation. If the ice in its motion holds down rock debris upon the rock surface over which it passes with such pressure as to polish and striate the bed-rock, the material carried will itself suffer wear comparable to that which it inflicts. ”

“ Another class of lake basins occurs in valleys, the basins being partly rock and partly drift. If a thick deposit of drift be made at one point in a valley, while above there is little or none, the thick deposit will form a dam, above which waters may accumulate, forming a pond or lake. Again, a ridge of drift may be deposited in the form of a curve with its ends against a rock-ridge, thus giving rise to a basin. ”

“ There are other peculiarities, less easily defined, which characterize the surface of glacier beds. The wear effected is not confined to the mere marking of the surface over which it passes. If prominences of rock exist in its path, as is often the case, they oppose the movement of the ice, and receive a corresponding measure of abrasion from it. If they be sufficiently resistant they may force the ice to yield by passing over or around them; but if they be weak, they are likely to be destroyed. ”

“ Marginal accumulations of stratified drift, made by the co-operation of running water and ice, must have had their most extensive development, other things being equal, where the margin of the ice was longest in one position, and where the streams were heavily loaded. The deposits made by water at the edge of the ice differ from those of the next class—made beyond the edge of the ice—in that they were influenced in their disposition and present topography, by the presence of ice. ”

“ The high ridge of drift a few rods north of the shore is a well defined moraine, and is here more clearly marked than farther east or west, because it stands between lower lands on either side, instead of being banked against the quartzite ridge. North of the lake it rises about 75 feet above the water. When the ice edge lay in this position on the north side of the range, its front between the East bluff and the Devil's nose lay a half mile or so from the south end of the lake. ”

“ Topography.—The South or main quartzite range, about 23 miles in length and one to four miles in width, rises 500 feet to 800 feet above the surrounding sandstone plain. Its slopes are generally too steep for cultivation, and are clothed for the most part with a heavy growth of timber, the banks of forest being broken here and there by cultivated fields, or by the purple grey of the rock escarpments too steep for trees to gain a foothold. With the possible exception of the Blue mounds southwest of Madison, this quartzite range is the most obtrusive topographic feature of southern Wisconsin. ”

“ Narrows.—Where a stream crosses a hard layer or ridge of rock lying between softer ones, the valley will not widen so rapidly in the hard rock as above and below. If the hard beds be vertical, so that their outcrop is not shifted as the degradation of the surface proceeds, a notable constriction of the valley results. Such a constriction is a narrows. The Upper and Lower narrows of the Baraboo (Plate IV) are good examples of the effect of hard rock on the widening of a valley. ”

“ The less resistant sandstone has been removed from about them, and erosion has not advanced so far since the isolation of the quartzite ridges as to greatly lower their crests. The harder strata are at a level where surface water can still work effectively, even though slowly, upon them, and in spite of their great resistance they will ultimately be brought down to the common level. It will be seen that, from the point of view of subaerial erosion, a base-level plain is the only land surface which is in a condition of approximate stability. ”

“ The smaller valleys descend to larger and lower ones, which in turn lead to those still larger and lower. The lowest valley of a system ends at the sea, so that the valley which joins the sea is the last member of the series of erosion channels of which the ravines and gullies are the first. It will thus be seen that all depressions in the surface, worn by rivers, lead to lower ones. ”

“ The ridges may be broken by depressions at frequent intervals, but the valleys are nowhere similarly interrupted. It would rarely be possible to walk along a ridge or "divide" for many miles without descending into valleys; but once in a valley in any part of the area, it may be descended without interruption, until the Baraboo, the Wisconsin, the Mississippi, and finally the gulf is reached. In other words, the depressions are continuous, but the elevations are not. This is the first type of topography.
Where this type of topography prevails its relation to drainage is evident at a glance. ”

“ As an ice sheet invades a region, it advances first and farthest along the lines of least resistance. In a rough country with great relief, tongues or lobes of ice would push forward in the valleys, while the hills or other prominences would tend to hold back or divide the onward moving mass. The edge of an ice sheet in such a region would be irregular. The marginal lobes of ice occupying the valleys would be separated by re-entrant angles marking the sites of hills and ridges. ”

“ Topography.—The topography of the ground moraine is in general the topography already described (p. 85) in considering the modification of preglacial topography effected by ice deposition. As left by the ice, its surface was undulating. The undulations did not take the form of hills and ridges with intervening valleys, but of swells and depressions standing in no orderly relationship to one another. Undrained depressions are found in the ground moraine, but they are, as a rule, broader and shallower than the "kettles" common to terminal moraines. ”

“ The water coming in at its head carries the head back into the land (head erosion) , thus lengthening the gully; the water coming in at its sides wears back the lateral slopes, thus widening it; and the water flowing along its bottom deepens it. Thus gullies grow to be ravines, and farther enlargement by the same processes converts ravines into valleys. A river valley therefore is often but a gully grown big.
The course of a valley.—In the lengthening of a gully or valley headward, the growth will be in the direction of greatest wear. ”

“ If recession began during the first stage, that is, when the ice edge was separated into lobes, the margin of the drift should be lobate, and would loop back around the ridge from its advanced position on either side. If recession began during the second stage, that is, when the lobes had become confluent and completely surrounded the hill, a driftless area would appear in the midst of drift. ”

“ As the edge of an ice sheet, or as the end of a glacier, retreats, the land which it has previously covered is laid bare, and the effects which the passage of the ice produced may be seen. In some cases one may actually go back a short distance beneath the ice now in motion, and see its mode of work and the results it is effecting. ”

“ No definite degree of slope can be fixed upon as marking a base-level. The angle of slope which would practically stop erosion in a region of slight rainfall would be great enough to allow of erosion if the precipitation were greater. All that can be said, therefore, is that the angle of slope must be low. The Mississippi has a fall of less than a foot per mile for some hundreds of miles above the gulf. A small stream in a similar situation would have ceased to lower its channel before so low a gradient was reached. ”

“ Under ordinary circumstances solution by streams is relatively unimportant, but where the rock is relatively soluble, and where conditions are not favorable for abrasion, solution may be more important than mechanical wear.
So soon as sea bottom is raised to the estate of land, it is attacked by the several processes of degradation. The processes of weathering at once begin to loosen the material of the surface if it be solid ”

“ In the course of time, the lakes and ponds in the depressions made or occasioned by the drift will be destroyed by drainage. Remembering how valleys develop (p. 46) it is readily understood that the heads of the valleys will sooner or later find the lakes, and drain them if their bottoms be not too low.
Drainage is hostile to lakes in another way. Every stream which flows into a lake brings in more or less sediment. In the standing water this sediment is deposited, thus tending to fill the lake basin. ”

“ A sluggish stream is also generally a depositing stream. Its deposits tend to aggrade (build up) the flat which its meanderings develop. When a valley bottom is built up, it becomes wider at the same time, for the valley is, as a rule, wider at any given level than at any lower one. Thus the U-shaped valley is finally converted into a valley with a flat bottom, the flat being due in large part to erosion, and in smaller part to deposition. ”

“ The edge of the ice was probably ragged, as the ends of glaciers are today, and as the waters issued from beneath it, they must frequently have left considerable quantities of such debris as they were carrying, against its irregular margin, and in its re-entrant angles and marginal crevasses. When the ice against which this debris was first lodged melted, the marginal accumulations of gravel and sand often assumed the form of kames. A typical kame is a hill, hillock, or less commonly a short ridge of stratified drift ”

“ The abrasion effected by a moving body of ice under such conditions would be great. Every inch of ice advance would be likely to be attended by loss to the surface of any obstacle over or around which it is compelled to move. The sharp summits of the hills, and all the angular rugosities of their surfaces would be filed off, and the hills smoothed down to such forms as will offer progressively less and less resistance. If the process of abrasion be continued long enough, the forms, even of the large hills, may be greatly altered, and their dimensions greatly reduced. ”

“ The ridges wind with the valleys which separate them. Whatever the width of the inter-stream ridges, it is clear that they must become narrower as the valleys between them become wider, and in following down a valley a point is reached, sooner or later, where the valleys, main and tributary, are of such size and so numerous that their slopes constitute a large part of the surface. ”

“ Those made beneath the ice and back from its edge constitute the ground moraine, and are distinguished from the considerable marginal accumulations which, under certain conditions, are accumulated at or near the margin. These marginal accumulations are terminal moraines. Associated with the moraines which are the deposits of the ice directly, there are considerable bodies of stratified gravel and sand, the structure of which shows that they were laid down by water. ”

“ In the great depression between the quartzite ranges, the moraine bends westward, showing that the ice advanced farther on the lowlands than on the ridges. As the moraine of this low area approaches the south range, it curves to the east. At the point southwest of Baraboo where the easterly curve begins to show itself, the moraine lies at the north base of the quartzite range; but as it is traced eastward, it is found to lie higher and higher on the slope of the range, until it reaches the crest nearly seven miles from the point where the eastward course was assumed. ”

“ At the bottoms of steep slopes, temporary streams build alluvial cones or fans. Along its flood-plain portion, a stream deposits more or less sediment on its flats. The part played by deposition in building a river flat has already been alluded to. A depositing stream often wanders about in an apparently aimless way across its flood plain. At the bends in its course, cutting is often taking place on the outside of a curve while deposition is going on in the inside. The valley of the Baraboo illustrates this process of cutting and building. ”