“ During the Burdigalian period, with increasing elevation of the mountain regions and depression of the Mediterranean and Caspian basins, a marine invasion began, which passed its maximum in the Vindobonian. The Mediterranean reached eastward to Persia, and, still open to the Atlantic, submerged north Africa, most of Italy and the neighbouring islands. It ascended the Rhone valley, penetrated to the Mainz basin, and skirting the north flank of the Alpine region passed into the Vienna basin and thence around the Carpathian tract into the Pontic and Caspian depression. ”

“ In Europe a general emergence of land in late Oligocene time resulted at the beginning of the Miocene (Aquitanian) in widespread lacustrine conditions throughout the western part of that continent, upon which the sea encroached at few points, though it had gained access to the Vienna basin and extended westward into Bavaria. Otherwise, marine Aquitanian deposits are confined to the Mediterranean basin and the south-west corner of France. Most of northern Europe, including the British Isles, remained dry land throughout Miocene time. ”

“ The spread of turf-forming grasses was succeeded in the Pontian by an enormous increase of herbivorous mammals, including Hipparion and horned ruminants (Helladotherium, Antilope, Cervus, Camelopardalis, Palaeotragus) , whose migrations were facilitated by the desiccation of the Mediterranean basin. ”