“ Thus the a, b, c systems are largely phonetic with respect to consonant-sounds; it is rather with regard to the vowels that they disregard the phonetic principle. No attempt is made to provide adequately for the many vowel-sounds of the language. Thus the signs for like and lick, for rate and rat, &c., are the same. In the case of vowel-sounds denoted by two letters, that vowel is to be written which best represents the sound. Thus in meat the e is selected, but in great the a. In some a, b, c systems, including the best of them (Taylor's) , a dot placed anywhere does duty for all the vowels. ”

“ But here again this medieval shorthand is not a tachygraphic system in the true sense of the word, but a syllabic system having very little advantage over the ordinary system of contracted longhand in respect to rapidity of writing, excepting that the scribe could pack more of the text into a given space. The medieval system therefore cannot be regarded as a development of any ancient system of Greek tachygraphy, but rather as a stunted descendant or petrified fragment, as it has been called, of an earlier and better system. ”

“ The raison d'être of such signs is not far to seek. The proper shorthand signs for many common words were so clumsy or ambiguous that this method was resorted to in order to provide them with clearer and easier outlines. For the purpose of verbatim reporting the student is recommended to omit as a rule all vowels, and decipher his writing with the aid of the context. But, when vowels are omitted, hundreds of pairs of words having the same consonant skeleton (such as minister and monastery, frontier and furniture, libel and label) are written exactly alike. ”

“ Unquestionably an extraordinary and universal-change has commenced in-the internal as-well-as-the external-world—in-the-mind-of-man as-well-as-in-the habits of society, the one indeed being-the necessary-consequence of the other. ”

“ In the better a, b, c systems the alphabetic signs, besides combining to denote words, may also stand alone to designate certain short common words, prefixes and suffixes. Thus in Harding's edition of Taylor's system the sign for d, when written alone, denotes do, did, the prefixes de-, des-, and the terminations -dom, -end, -ened, -ed. This is a good practice if the words are well chosen and precautions taken to avoid ambiguities. Numbers of symbolical signs and rough word-pictures, and even wholly arbitrary marks, are employed to denote words and entire phrases. ”

“ Symbolical or pictorial signs, if sufficiently suggestive and not very numerous, may be effective; but the use of “arbitraries” is objectionable because they are so difficult to remember. In many shorthand books the student is recommended to form additional ones for himself, and so of course make his writing illegible to others. ”

“ Such a system of shorthand, expressing words by comprehensive symbols or word-outlines, could be the only system possible for rapid reporting of human speech. But it seems that in instances where a symbol was not forthcoming to express an unusual word, such as a proper name, it was customary, at lcast in the written notes which have survived, to express it by a group of syllabic signs. A reporter, taking down a speech, could not have waited to express the unusual word or proper name by such a slow process ”

“ Numerous societies have been formed in all English-speaking countries for the dissemination of phonograph, the largest being the Phonetic Society. Phonography has been adapted to several foreign languages, but not so successfully as Gabelsberger's German system. ”

“ Byrom's method received the distinction of a special act of parliament for its protection (15 Geo. II. c. 23, for twenty-one years from 24th June 1742) . To secure linearity in the writing and facility in consonantal joinings he provided two forms for b, h, j, w, x, sh, th, and three for l. A, e, i, o, u, he represented by a dot in five positions with respect to a consonant. Practically it is impossible to observe more than three (beginning, middle and end) . With all its merits, the system lacks rapidity, the continual recurrence of the loop seriously retarding the pen. ”

“ Throughout the civilized world the systems employed are those of the leading authors of the 19th century; earlier systems have now a numerically small number of practitioners. Shorthand has become an almost indispensable qualification for the amanuensis, and practical stenographic ability is a necessary equipment of 'the typewriter operator. In professional and commercial offices, and more recently in the services, dictation to shorthand writers has become general. ”

“ In the strangers' gallery of the House of Commons in 1728 Byrom dared to write shorthand from Sir R. Walpole and others. In 1731, when called upon to give evidence before a parliamentary committee, he took shorthand notes, and, complaints being made, he said that if those attacks on the liberties of shorthand men went on he “must have a petition from all counties where our disciples dwell, and Manchester must lead the way.” Thomas Molyneux popularized the system by publishing seven cheap editions between 1793 and 1825. ”

“ A rational consideration of the circumstances in-which-mankind are at-present placed must-show-us that influences of the most-important and wonderful character have-been and are operating in-such-a-manner-as-to bring-about if-not-a reformation, a thorough revolution in-the organization of society. ”

“ This system did more than any of its predecessors to establish the art in England and abroad. Equal to Byrom's in brevity, it is simpler in construction. No letter has more than one sign, except w, which has two. Considering that five vowel places about a consonant were too many, Taylor went to the other extreme and expressed all the vowels alike by a dot placed in any position. He directs that vowels are not to be expressed except when they sound strong at the beginning and end of a word. ”

“ In a fully vocalized style position is not employed, but in the reporting style it is of the greatest use. Thus the outline (tm) written above the line must be read either time or Tom; when written resting on the line l/ tome or tame; when struck through the line teem, team or tomb. By this method the number of possible readings of an unvocalized outline is greatly reduced. That word in each positional group which occurs the most frequently need not be vocalized, but the others should. ”

“ Never in-the-history-of-the-world have benevolent and philanthropic institutions for-the relief of domestic and public affliction; societies for-the promotion of manufacturing, commercial and agricultural interests ”

“ The halving of a heavy stroke may, if necessary, add t, and that of a light stroke d, thus % beautified. By combining the hook, the circle, and the halving principle, two or three tocon- gether, exceedingly brief signs are obtained for a number of sonantal series consisting of the combination of a consonant with one or more of the sounds s, r, l, n, f, t, thus °\sp, °\spr, e-sp1t, °~° sprts ”

“ By decree of November 21, 1802, a public professorship of shorthand was founded in Madrid, Marti being the first professor. Founded on Marti's system are those of Serra y Ginesta (1816) and Xamarillo (1811) . Many Spanish systems are merely imitations or reproductions of Marti's, and adaptations of Gabelsberger's, Stolze's and Pitman's systems. That of Garriga y Maril (1863) has attained some popularity in Spain.
Italian.—Italian translations and adaptations of Taylor's system succeeded one another in considerable numbers from Amanti (1809) to Bianchini (1871) . Delpino's (1819) is the best. ”

“ He does not recognize all the varieties of sound, and makes some distinctions which are merely orthographical. Soft sounds have small, light and round signs, while the hard sounds have large, heavy and straight signs. The signs too are derived from the current alphabet, so that one can find the former contained in the latter. Vowels standing between consonants are not literally inserted, but symbolically indicated by either position or shape of the surrounding consonants, without, however, leaving the straight writing line. On Gabelsberger's system is based that of W. Stolze (1840) . ”

“ For John of Tilbury's system (c. 1175) , see especially Shorthand, No. 5, and Hermes, viii. p. 303. ↑ The Bodleian Library contains the only known copy of Bright's book. For a description of the system, see Phonetic Journal (1884) , p. 86; Circulars of Information of the Bureau of Education (Washington, 1884) , No. 2, p. 8; and Notes and Queries, 2nd ser., vol. ii. p. 394. A is represented by a straight line, the other letters of the alphabet by a straight line with a hook, circle, or tick added at the beginning. ”