Eduard Meyer

“ During this time the Parthian kingdom was torn by civil wars between different pretenders, which reached their height during the war of Trajan, 114–17. Besides Vologaeses II. we find on coins and in the authors Pacorus (78–c. 105) , Artabanus III. (80–81) , Osroes (106–29) , Mithradates V. (c. 129–47) and some others; thus the Parthian empire seems during this whole time to have been divided into two or three different kingdoms. By classic authors Vologaeses II. is mentioned in the time of Hadrian (c. 131) , when Cappadocia, Armenia and Media were invaded by the Alani (Dio Cass. lxix. 15) . ”

“ Soon afterwards the Alani, a great nomadic tribe beyond the Caucasus, invaded Media and Armenia (Joseph. Bell. vii. 7, 4) ; Vologaeses applied in vain for help to Vespasian (Dio Cass. lxvi. 11; Suet. Domitian, 2) . It appears that the Persian losses in the east also could not be repaired; Hyrcania remained an independent kingdom (Joseph. Bell. vii. 7, 4; Aurel. Vict. Epit. 15, 4) . ”

“ Under him, the unity of the empire was restored. But he was attacked by the Romans under Marcus Aurehus and Verus (162–65) . In this war Seleucia was destroyed and the palace of Ctesiphon burnt down by Avidius Cassius (164) ; the Romans even advanced into Media. ”