Renward Brandstetter

“ From nifi is formed a verb manifi, "to make thin", and this forms its imperative with the suffix -a, as in § 30, but that imperative is not ma-nifi-a: it is ma-nifis-a, because here the s, having shifted into the interior of the word, is no longer liable to be affected by the laws that govern final consonants. Here, then, we have evidence that Hova also originally said nifis < nipis. And cases of this kind can be adduced in considerable numbers. But I have failed to discover in these languages any evidence of the former presence of final mediæ. ”

“ III. The fleeting pěpět. In some languages the pěpět shares the characteristics of the other vowels: it can occur in long and short form, accentuated and unaccentuated. In other languages, e.g. in Tontemboan, it only appears as a short vowel. Or else, as in Gayo, it cannot carry the accent: hence Gayo túluk, "to verify", but "tělúk", "bay". This fleeting character of the pěpět is causally connected with various IN phonetic phenomena. So far as I am aware, the pěpět does not become a diphthong in any of the IN languages. ”

“ For many of the Karo word-bases stand entirely isolated, e.g., lecek, “to ask for”. There is no other Karo word of similar meaning and analogous sound; none at all, in fact, that ends in cek. After what has been said we may, no doubt, presume that lecek can be analyzed into the formative le and the root cek, but owing to the isolated position of the word we gain nothing thereby.
It is certainly interesting and quite legitimate to ascertain what results we can arrive at if we confine ourselves to the study of a single language ”

“ Our normal standard will be nine, eight, or it may be only seven areas: if the number is less than that, it will -be only with diffidence, if at all, that we shall pronounce a linguistic phenomenon to be Common IN.
4. When we confront together languages thus diversely situated in geographical position, we are at the same time comparing languages that are related in the most various degrees of relationship. It will happen, for instance, that we shall compare the Malay of the Peninsula, the Minangkabau, of Sumatra, the Javanese, and the Masaretese of the eastern ' border. ”

“ INDONESIAN VERB.
43. The great majority of IN languages possess the capacity of forming he three genera of the verb: the active, the causative, and the passive. This phenomenon, therefore, is Common IN. It is the chief characteristic of the IN verb.
44. We have learnt that the languages of the East are very poor morphologically. So it is striking that even there we still find languages that possess the three genera, as, for example, Kamberese. ”

“ We very often meet with the phenomenon that in some language a word ends in a consonant, while the Original IN and some of the other living languages have a vowel as final. Here we are dealing with words of form that have become annexed to the original word. "How much" in Original IN is pira but in Makassar piraṅ; "this" in Old Javanese is ika, but in Modern Jav. kaṅ. The ṅ is an article welded on, originating from such formulas as the Old Jav. ”

“ The preposition i also does duty as a word-base for verbal forms. The one we meet with most frequently is ma-i, “ to go (to) ”, with the formative ma-, for which see § 148. This verb is found in many languages, from Form, on the Northern Border to Simalurese on the South- Western one. So now we have evidence for i in two more areas of distribution. Note. — That our explanation of the verb mai is the right one is proved by the parallel matu < ma + preposition tu, "to". This verb signifies "to set about (doing a thing) "; in Bug. it indicates the future. ”

“ THE PERSONS.
118. The IN languages often possess two parallel series of personal pronouns: full forms and short forms. Thus in very many languages the full form of "I" is aku, while its short form in Bont. is ak, in Mal. ku, in Old Jav. k. Full forms are found in all the languages, so that this linguistic fact must be called Common IN; the distribution of the short forms is less extensive, though we find them in nearly all the great areas of distribution: in Celebes, Bug. possesses them, but Tontb. does not. In certain languages the series of the short forms is incomplete ”

“ Some of the phenomena that are usually regarded as variations could perhaps with equal justification be classed under the concept of determination. It is customary to say that suk in Old Jav. asuk, “to bring into”, and sup in susup, “to force one's way into”, stand in the relation of variation to one another. But it is also a tenable view that suk and sup are cases of the determination of a root of two sounds, su. But this would remain a mere figment of the imagination until it had been shown that such a root su had a real existence. ”

“ From Sanskrit yoga comes Karo iyoga, “yoke” ". But as i- in Karo is a prefix, it appears to the people who speak Karo as if iyoga were made up of the prefix i + the intermediaiy sound y + oga, and hence they have abstracted out of iyoga a WB oga, which is now employed alongside of iyoga. Or, since ka- is a very common prefix in Old Javanese, the Sanskrit kawi, “poet”, makes the impression of being a derived word, and from it is extracted a WB awi, “to compose (poetry) ”, from which in its turn various derivatives are formed, e.g., aiviawian, “poetry”. ”

“ Among the languages which form their tenses with genuine formatives, there are some that have only elaborated two tenses : thus Magindanao only has the present and the past, and has to use a periphrasis for the future. Other languages form all the three tenses, and also bring the imperative into the ambit of this system of tenses. Such elaborated systems are found in Formosa, the Phihppines, the intermediate islands, e.g. Sangir, and Madagascar. Example ”

“ Specimen sentence with a word-base as an imperative : Kamberese, from the Story of the Civetcat: " Wait till we kill you ! " = Wait, (we) kill you ! = napa, mapameti kau.
161. The languages of the Philippines, North Celebes, Madagascar, and some other islands also have formatives for the formation of tenses, but the distribution of these formatives is not wide enough to entitle us to call them Common IN. The most widely spread case is that of n-, as a sign of the past tense. †
The Substantive
162. Substantives occur much more frequently without extension than verbs do. ”

“ There is a phonetic law of interchange of vowels as between Karo and Toba (§ 19) , whereby every Karo ě is represented in Toba by o, and thus Karo ěněm, “six”, is onom in Toba. Now the pendant to the Karo ikěl, “to laugh” , is not eṅkol in Toba but eṅkel. But we have no right whatever to assert that this is an exception to the law; on the contrary, the matter stands thus: there was originally a root for to laugh with two variants, kel and kd, whereof the first has been preserved in Karo, the other in Toba. [41]
Determination. ”

“ As in Tontemboan the accent is produced by a rise in pitch and the unaccentuated syllables are all distinctly and perfectly pronounced, the Tontb. accent gives one the impression of being weak. It is, however, distinctly audible that it falls upon the penultimate” (Adriani) . — “In Rottinese the accent is distinctly audible and falls upon the penultimate” (Jonker) . — “In Minangkabau all the syllables have the same loudness but the penultimate one sounds somewhat longer or more extended and thus has the accent” (Van der Toorn) . ”

“ II. IN possesses a feature which the grammars rightly call a copula. Only it is not a verb, but a particle, viz., i or ay or ya, etc., which links different parts of the sentence, particularly subject and predicate, together. The copula is found in the Philippines, in Northern Celebes and in Madagascar; it cannot, therefore, be called Common IN.
142. The status constructus, in Nias.
It is formed principally in two ways: words that begin with a vowel take n or g before that vowel; words that begin with a surd turn it into a sonant. Many words do not form the status constructus at all. ”

“ There is only one universally distributed IN suffix, viz. -an, -ĕn or -n, which is used both in nominal and verbal derivation. By means of this suffix we are enabled, it is true, to explain one of the phenomena of determination. In § 41 we became acquainted with a root si, “contents”; in Tettum it has the form sin, occurring in isin, “contents”. In the determining n we may recognize the above-mentioned formative -n. This phenomenon is found chiefly in Masaretese and Tettum, which has twenty quite certain cases, but we also meet with it in other languages. Other examples:
Metathesis. ”

“ To sum up the results of this discussion on the final mediae (§§ 65-72) , we have succeeded in showing that in the Philippines, Celebes, Borneo, Java, Sumatra, the Malay Pen-insula, and on the Northern and South-Western Borders, that is in eight of our regions, there are languages which admit all sounds as finals, including the mediæ, or else formerly admitted them. Hence the conclusion: In Common IN any sound can be a final, always excepting the palatal consonants. ”

“ Aspirated consonants have arisen in the hving IN languages in the following ways :
I. They are found in WB's formed by the doubling of roots having h as their initial and an explosive as their final, as in Old Javanese hathat, "to take care", Bisaya hagliag, "texture". These cases are not numerous.
II. A few languages, like Tagalog, allow the combination of most of the consonants with a subsequent h, and consequently also that kind of combination which we call the aspirates. Hence in Tagalog a word like bugháw, " blue ",is just as permissible as a word like panhik, "to ascend". ”

“ I do not by any means regard enumeration as a species of child's play : it is, amongst other things, a matter of scientific importance to know how often a linguistic phenomenon occurs. — Specimen enumeration: as Section IX shows, IN, like other languages, have reflexive verbs; Malay has an expression parallel to the German "sich begeben " ("to betake oneself") , Bugis a parallel to the French " se repentir ". Now an analysis of the Malay popular historical romance Hang Tuah yields a dozen reflexive verbs in 112 printed pages. ”