Renward Brandstetter

“ We meet with the law of the mediæ especially in Celebes and the neighbouring smaller islands, thus in Sangirese, Talautese, and Tontemboan, three languages that are closely related to one another, in Cenrana, and in Bugis; also apart from Celebes in Ibanag, Nias, Mentaway, and Hova.
155. I. The Sangirese law. In Sang. the media comes after a consonant; after vowels, the media g turns into the spirant ɣ, the media d into the liquid r, the media h into the semi-vowel w; thus the instantaneous mediae become continuants; and this holds good both of a single word and of words in a sentence. ”

“ From Sanskrit yoga comes Karo iyoga, “yoke” ". But as i- in Karo is a prefix, it appears to the people who speak Karo as if iyoga were made up of the prefix i + the intermediaiy sound y + oga, and hence they have abstracted out of iyoga a WB oga, which is now employed alongside of iyoga. Or, since ka- is a very common prefix in Old Javanese, the Sanskrit kawi, “poet”, makes the impression of being a derived word, and from it is extracted a WB awi, “to compose (poetry) ”, from which in its turn various derivatives are formed, e.g., aiviawian, “poetry”. ”

“ Aspirated consonants have arisen in the hving IN languages in the following ways :
I. They are found in WB's formed by the doubling of roots having h as their initial and an explosive as their final, as in Old Javanese hathat, "to take care", Bisaya hagliag, "texture". These cases are not numerous.
II. A few languages, like Tagalog, allow the combination of most of the consonants with a subsequent h, and consequently also that kind of combination which we call the aspirates. Hence in Tagalog a word like bugháw, " blue ",is just as permissible as a word like panhik, "to ascend". ”

“ Ampana sounds the syllables before the accentuated one so softly, “that it is only when a person speaks slowly, that one can hear what vowel they have” (Adriani) . In several languages a syllable preceding the accentuated one may lose its vowel: in Dayak they say blaku as well as balaku, “to ask”. Loss of a vowel following after the accentuated syllable is very rare; it is found in Makianese, which has lim, “five” < Original IN lima.
Original Indonesian Accentuation. ”

“ Some of the IN languages have a constant pronunciation of their sounds, others exhibit variations in some sound or other. In the Philippine languages "i is often not to be distinguished from e" (Scheerer) . In Dayak "the sound of o varies between o and u, indeed the same person in uttering the same word will pronounce the sound sometimes more like an o, and at other times more like a u" (Hardeland) . Probably Bontok exhibits the extreme of arbitrariness in this respect ”

“ We therefore assume that in a former period of its evolution the final in Rottinese had become exclusively vocalic, and that in the modern period it has again to a large extent resumed the consonantal form owing to the welding on of articles containing no vowel. The assumption of such a divergency in development involves no impossibility. As was remarked above, the Bimanese is a language with purely vocalic finals, yet it employs certain enclitic pronouns even in forms devoid of vowels. "Child" in Bim. is ána < Original IN anak, "my child" is aná-ku or aná-k. ”

“ And if our objective method had no other aim or purpose than to cut away the ground from under the feet of that unscientific, unjust mental attitude, which is so offensive to our common sentiment of humanity as well, would not that be a sufficient justification for its existence? ”

“ For the understanding of IN phonetic phenomena it is absolutely necessary to study texts. Naturally those texts are most satisfactory which mark accent, quantity, sandhi, and the like. One can often get more Hght from the texts than from the explanations of the manuals. For instance, Seidenadel, in his grammar of the Bontok language, gives no theory of quantity, but out of his most conscientiously edited texts we can construct the theory for ourselves. ”

“ I. In languages of the penultimate type the accent is shifted, so that it always falls again upon the penultimate. From the Bugis tiwiq, “to bring” < Primitive Bug. tiwir, are derived: tiwiri, “to bring to somebody” , and patiwiriyaṅ, “to give something to somebody to take with him and bring it”. Only a few languages of the penultimate type fail to shift the accent, e.g. Gayo, which accordingly accentuates kĕbáyakan, “riches” < bdyak, “rich”.
II. The other types also shift the accent, hence Toba isian, “vessel” < isi, “contents”. ”

“ The Javanese language of ceremonious politeness changes kuraṅ, “too few”, into kiraṅ, by analogy with liraṅ, “half”.
31. One of the methods of formation of the Javanese language of ceremonious politeness consists in replacing
various word- endings by -jiṅ or -jěṅ: thus from esuq, “morrow”, it makes enjiṅ and from buru, “to hunt”, bujěṅ. I shall style this mode of formation the jěṅ-type. Now we find isolated representatives of this jěṅ-type in other languages also. Malay has a word anjiṅ, “dog”, Makassar a word tojeṅ, “true”, with e instead of ě. ”

“ Some of the IN languages possess some sound or other in two distinct shades; thus Nias has two o’s (see § 5) , Talautese two l’s (see § 5) ; Original IN had two r’s (see § 129) .
43. Sounds with unusual articulation, i.e., such as rarely occurs in human speech in general, are scarce in IN. Busang has a labio-dental b, formed by the contact of the lower lip with the upper teeth. But has an h formed by expelling the breath through the nose. ”

“ In the living IN languages the hamzah is found as an initial sound before vowels, as a medial sound between vowels or between a vowel and a subsequent consonant, and as a final sound after vowels; in such positions, in fact, as in the Achinese qancó, "to melt", Madurese leqer, "neck", Bugis biriqta, "report", Makassar anaq, "child". — Other positions are rare, such as in the Bontok allqo, "pestle", Tontemboan ĕlaqb, "torch" ”

“ The k is an abbreviation of ku, the proclitic pronoun of the first person, which appears in that form and with that function in many IN languages; tona is the future of ton, “to see”. Apart from these cases Old Javanese does not employ elision but only contraction or the change of a vowel into a consonant.
II. In Nias after a final vowel in certain groups of intimate relation the voiceless initial consonant of the next word is changed into a voiced (or sonant) one; thus in the combination “principal word + subjective genitive” , or the combination “preposition + principal word” . ”

“ Here the excessive lengthening of vowels and even of consonants is a phenomenon of particularly frequent occurrence. “In Minangkabau, if one wants to express pity for the person addressed, one says : tuaaan, ‘lord !’ ; if a man sees a runaway horse, he shouts out: kudooo!” (Van der Toorn) . — “In Madurese, they say kab . . . bhi, ' all !', instead of kabbhi, if they want to express astonishment” .
340. From the tem fo there result certain phonetic phenomena, viz. the lento an d alltgro forms. In Dayak the article i coalesces with the pronoun aku to form yaku, “I” . ”

“ The pronunciation of the Mantangay dialect of Dayak is much like that of the Pulopetak dialect, only the last word of each sentence is pronounced longer and louder " (Hardeland) . — “In Minangkabau the last word of a sentence, or its final syllable, bears the principal accent; thus they say, with a stronger intonation : ' He sleeps ' = inyo lalóq ” (Van der Toorn) . “In Bada the last syllable of a sentence is spoken with a rising (opgang) of the voice, i.e. with a rising accent” (Adriani) . ”

“ Sequences of three consonants in the interior of words are rare and cannot be ascribed to Original IN. They arise chiefly in two ways:
I. By mere operation of phonetic law. The sequence nd in Nias becomes ndr, hence Nias tandra < Original IN tanda, "mark".
II. By the springing up of intermediary sounds. From the Old Javanese WB prih is derived the verb amrih, "to strive", for which Madurese has ambri, the b having arisen as an intermediary sound forming the transition from the m to the r. Of like origin is Modern Javanese ambral < amral < admiral. ”

“ For our deductions we often require a basis to start from; and that basis is Original IN. In this matter I follow the same procedure as Brugmann in his “Kurze vergleichende Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen” . Just as IE comparative research has inferred from the Sanskrit dhūmás, Latin fumus, etc., an Original IE dhūmós, “smoke”, and as Brugmann (KvG, § 85) , in deahng with the vowel ū, proceeds from this dhumos and other such Original IE words as by the same method have been shown to contain the vowel u ; so from Hova telu, Toba tolu, etc., there follows an Original IN tĕlu, “three”. ”

“ On the other hand, I do not share the view that in durative formations such as the Old Javanese mamanah from the WB panah , “to shoot”, the m replacing the p, that is a continuous sound instead of a momentary one, indicates duration; in a former monograph I have given a purely mechanical phonetic explanation of this phenomenon, and I am convinced that all IE scholars will approve of my view.
Madurese exhibits a peculiar phenomenon in connexion with words where the WB is partially reduplicated, after the fashion of los-alos, “ very fine ”, te-pote, “ quite white ” ”

“ I. The spelling of certain languages, particularly in Sumatra, exhibits a more archaic phonetic stage than the pronunciation. IN research establishes that the word for “free” in its original form was lḝpas. Minangkabau says lapeh, but writes lapas; the written language, therefore, has preserved the original final of the word. Such spellings accordingly confirm the conclusions of linguistic comparison.
II. Words that lean proclitically or enclitically on a principal word are in several languages written continuously with it. Thus in the Makassar tale I Kukang, p. 5, 1. ”

“ The two most interesting phonetic combinations in IN are the combination of a vowel with a semi- vowel and the combination of an explosive with the aspirate h. The first are called diphthongs, the second aspirates. In the diphthongs the semi- vowel may precede, as in the Dayak yaku, "I", or follow, as in the Tagalog patáy, "to kill". Only the second kind can lay claim to special interest, and we shall therefore deal only with it. ”

“ IV. Nias has no pĕpĕt; where other tongues have ĕ, Nias has an o. But this o has a peculiar pronunciation, it is articulated further back in the mouth than the o of a different origin. If I represent the front o by o1 and the back one by o2, I get (for example) the equations: Nias bo2li, “price” = Original IN, and likewise Gayo, Malay, etc., bĕli, but Nias o1no1, “child” = Original IN, and likewise Old Javanese, Tagalog, etc., anak. The peculiarity in the articulation of the o2 accordingly points to an originally peculiar sound, in fact to the pĕpĕt. ”

“ In Busang an Original IN final vowel usually has a hamzah added to it; in particular, Original IN i becomes eq and u becomes oq, hence Original IN beli, "to buy" > Bus. běléq and Original IN batu, "stone" > Bus. batóq.
145. Just as in several languages the interjections often end in q, so in other languages they are particularly frequently found with an h as final, thus in Madurese.
146. Just as vocatives and negatives may have a final q added to them, so in certain languages they may receive a final a. Toba has a vocative aṅgiá corresponding to aṅgi, "younger brother" ”

“ But in normal Bareqe the palatal tenuis only occurs after the nasal, so that forms like cucu do not exist in the speech of adults. On the other hand, the palatal media is not subject to the same restrictions as the tenuis, and so it comes about that parents, when they speak to children, say neither susu nor cucu, but juju.
24. It is not uncommon for childish words to make their way into the language of adults, particularly the forms involving infantile repetition. In Original IN and in most of the living IN languages, “father” is ama, “mother”, ina ”