Renward Brandstetter

“ To sum up the results of this discussion on the final mediae (§§ 65-72) , we have succeeded in showing that in the Philippines, Celebes, Borneo, Java, Sumatra, the Malay Pen-insula, and on the Northern and South-Western Borders, that is in eight of our regions, there are languages which admit all sounds as finals, including the mediæ, or else formerly admitted them. Hence the conclusion: In Common IN any sound can be a final, always excepting the palatal consonants. ”

“ Such a case is minum, from the word-base inum, "to drink ". "To drink", verb with formative. Philippines, Tag.: minum — Celebes, Bug. : minuṅ — Java, Old Jav. : minum — Sumatra, Toba : minum — Malay Peninsula, Mal. : minum — Madagascar, Hova: minuna — South- Western Border, Nias: minu.
159.' In many IN languages the verbal word-base unaccompanied by any formative is imperative, and this usage must be regarded as Common IN.*
Word-base as imperative. Philippines, Magindanao: sulat, " write ! " — Celebes, Mak.: lampa, " go ! " — Borneo, Day.: tiroh, " sleep ! " — Java, Old Jav.: laku, " go ! " ”

“ In Bat. gaṅit < laṅit, g represents Common IN l as in bugan < Common IN bulan, “moon”.
10. We shall exhibit the Common IN linguistic phenomena from the following points of view: phonetic system, synthesis of sounds into words, word-accent, formal analysis of words, formation of derived words, reduplication of words, and synthesis of words into sentences (i.e. syntax) .
11. The second principal fart of the monograph will have for its subject the Original Indonesian language. We style Original IN the fundamental form of speech from which the individual IN languages are descended. ”

“ The vowel a. We meet with this vowel in the Common IN word kayu, "tree". That kayu is a Common IN word is proved by the following table :
Tree. Philippines, Ibanag: kayu — Celebes, Tonsea: kayu — Borneo, Day.: kayu — Java, Jav.: kayu — Sumatra, Mkb. : kayu — Malay Peninsula, Mal.: kayu — Madagascar, Hova: hazu — Northern Border, Form. : caiou — South-Western Border, Simalurese: ayu-ayu.
Note I. — The spelling in Happart and Van der Vlis' Form, vocabularies is very awkward; we need have no hesitation in interpreting caiou as = kayu. ”

“ Note I.—It must not be imagined that this monosyllabic kan merely figures in the dictionary: it really exists in living speech. We find in the Mentaway story Ägā-mu-la-laibi the phrase: “ There is no food ” = tata kan, and that is a complete sentence. Again, in the Mentaway legend of the origin of the race we read: “ There were plantains for food ” = aiat kan bago; and that, too, is a complete sentence. Note II. — -In other languages kan is found as a radical constituent of disyllabic words of substance, as for instance in the Old Jav. ”

“ The article a. Philippines, Ibanag : tolay a mapia, " man a good " = " a good man " — Celebes, Mak.: jaraṅ a, "the horse" — Sumatra, Gayo: anak bujaṅ a, "boy big the " = " the youth " — Northern Border, Form. : kuiri a rima, " left the hand " = " the left hand " — Eastern Border, Rottinese: nau a, " the grass ".
88. The article a is also a component of the Old Jav. article aṅ < a + ṅ, which is used pretty interchangeably with the simple ṅ: e.g., aṅ anak or ṅ anak, "the child". Similarly it is a component of the pronoun anu, " somebody " (§ 135) , which occurs in nearly all the IN languages. ”

“ From nifi is formed a verb manifi, "to make thin", and this forms its imperative with the suffix -a, as in § 30, but that imperative is not ma-nifi-a: it is ma-nifis-a, because here the s, having shifted into the interior of the word, is no longer liable to be affected by the laws that govern final consonants. Here, then, we have evidence that Hova also originally said nifis < nipis. And cases of this kind can be adduced in considerable numbers. But I have failed to discover in these languages any evidence of the former presence of final mediæ. ”

“ If we now add the imperative a of the Northern Border and Madagascar to the dubitative a of the preceding paragraph, we may pronounce this particle to be Common IN.
109. Specimen sentence with an a dubitativum, used conjmictively : Old Jav., Mahābhārata, Āśramawasanaparwa, 13 : "It is not seemly that thou shouldst come with us" = Not seemly, thou shouldst-come- with with us = tan yogya kita milwa ri kami. ”

“ The preposition i also does duty as a word-base for verbal forms. The one we meet with most frequently is ma-i, “ to go (to) ”, with the formative ma-, for which see § 148. This verb is found in many languages, from Form, on the Northern Border to Simalurese on the South- Western one. So now we have evidence for i in two more areas of distribution. Note. — That our explanation of the verb mai is the right one is proved by the parallel matu < ma + preposition tu, "to". This verb signifies "to set about (doing a thing) "; in Bug. it indicates the future. ”

“ Philippines, Magindanao: kaputi, "whiteness", word-base puti — Celebes, Tontb.: kawělar, " breadth " — Borneo, Day.: kagogop, " care, sorrow", word-base gogop, "worried, troubled" — Java, Sund.: kañaho, "knowledge" — Sumatra, Toba: halinu, "image produced by reflection in a mirror or in water", word-base in Old Bug., viz. lino, " to mirror oneself " — Madagascar, Hova: hatsara, "goodness". ”

“ The word for "cloud " in the Pampanga of the Philippines is biga, in the Bugis of Celebes ĕllun, in the Malay of the Peninsula awan : in short, one might almost say that each IN language has its own special word for “cloud”. We therefore say: there is no Common IN expression for “cloud” .
6. Now the Common IN linguistic phenomena form the subject of the first of the two prmcipal -parts into which our monograph is divided. ”

“ See also alina < alem, § 24. — It is true that idzin means “dark” and ijem “green”, but we find in IN more than one parallel for the shift of meaning from “green” to “dark” . In Madagascar itself maitsu signifies “green” in some of the dialects and “black” in others; Mal. hijau means “green” and is also used to describe the glint of black hair. — In the Mlg. of to-day z, i.e. the sonant sibilant, is used for Flacourt's dz, that is, for Common IN j.
Note. — It is remarkable what a number of Day. words con- taining j occur also in Hova, including some that are peculiar to these two languages. ”

“ The pronoun “ we ”. Philippines, Inv.: kami — Celebes, Tontb.: kami — Borneo, Bol.: kami — Java, Old Jav.: kami — Sumatra, Gayo: kami — Malay Peninsula, Mal.: kami — Eastern Border, Masaretese: kami.
129. The pronoun “ you ”. Philippines, Ibanag: kamu — Celebes, Tontb.: kamu — Java, Old Jav.: kamu — Sumatra, Karo, in certain districts: kamu — Malay Peninsula, Mal.: kamu.
Note.—Of all the above-mentioned personal pronouns kamu has the most restricted distribution, and accordingly we have some hesitation in pronouncing it to be Common IN.
130. The pronoun “ they ”. ”

“ Philippines, Bis.: baigad, " to stroke ", the word-base thereto being found in Iloko, viz. igad, " to stroke " — Celebes, Bug.: baluka, " to be loose, to be free " — Borneo, Day.: badaha, " to bleed " — Java, Sund. : baganti, " to interchange " — Sumatra, Lampong: baguna, " to be useful " — Madagascar, Hova: wawenti, " to be bulky, to be massive " — Eastern Border, Sumbawarese: basiṅin, " to bear a name, to be called " — South-Western Border, Mentaway: baliyu, " to fill ", word-base in Mak., viz. ”

“ As to Batanese gañit, see § 9.
9. Besides having recourse to phonetic laws we shall find references to parallel cases of great service. In Mentaway laṅit no longer means “sky”, as it does in Common IN, but “the red tint of dawn and sunset”. This transition in meaning would hardly, I imagine, disconcert us: instead of the sky we have a phenomenon in the sky. But our confidence will be even greater when we observe that a parallel case occurs in a dialect of Formosa, where araṅit < laṅit means “cloud” : here, too. instead of the sky we have a phenomenon in the sky. ”

“ The same kind of evidence as has been given for Mal. can also be produced in the case of certain languages of Sum-atra, e.g. Karo, Toba and Mkb.' Old Jav., for instance, has a word-base anteg, "to arrive at", with a root teg; Toba has togi < tog + i, “to conduct to a place”, with, o for e in con-formity with the law: “Common IN pepet appears in Toba as o”.— For Borneo, too, we have similar evidence: we merely add that rugi also exists in Day. ”

“ Mal. also possesses this root, though not as an independent word, but only as a con-stituent embodied in disyllabic word-bases. When it is com- bined with a prefixed element, the media g is a final, and must therefore change into the tenuis; but if the root is linked with a sufiixed element, the media appears in the interior of the word and is preserved. Thus we get, on the one hand, Mal. buruk < bu + rug, " to fall to bits ", and on the other, rugi < rug + i, "to damage". [7] —Other Mal. examples: sigi, "to dig with the fingers", beside Old Jav. ”

“ Thus in the Mal. version of the Rāmāyana, where the story is told of how Hanuman was sent to Langkapura, there is the sentence: “ Now Hanuman was sitting under a maja tree ” = Hanuman pun duduq-lah di bawah pohon maja. Here we have four disyllabic word-bases in succession.
Note.—Mal. lah here serves to emphasize the predicate. — di bawah literally means “ at (the) bottom (of) ”.
51. Monosyllabic words of substance, i.e. verbs and nouns, are rare; some languages possess none at all; Old Jav. has the largest number. ”

“ We also became acquainted in § 1 with a Common IN laṅit, “ sky ”, and later on we shall meet with the Common IN words apuy, “ fire ”, ama, “ father ”, ina, “ mother ”, ratus, “ hundred ”, and a, “ the ”, as well as the Common IN formatives ka-, ta-, and -an. All these forms agree in containing the vowel a. The amount of this material is so large that we may without hesitation pronounce the vowel a to be Common IN.
20. The vowel i. This vowel is proved to be Common IN by the word aṅin, “ wind ”, in accordance with the following table:
Wind. ”

“ Note II. — Form. Xe, " dung ", stands in the same relation to Common IN tai as in the parallel case of X0, " man ", be- side the widely distributed tau.
152. The passive formative ka-. Philippines, Bont.: kalaṅo, "dried up", word-base laṅo — Celebes, Bug.: kacalla, " accursed " — Borneo, Tar. : kasukab, " opened " — Java, Old Jav.: katon, "seen", word-base ton — Sumatra, Lampong: kaděṅi, "heard" — Madagascar, Hova: hadinu, "forgotten", word-base in Pamp., viz. liṅao, "forgetful" — Eastern Border, Kamberese: kahira, " torn ". ”

“ Common IN final consonants, except nasals, become q in Bug.".
141.The numeral " thousand" Philippines, Iloko: ribu— Celebes, Tonsawang: mo-ribu — Borneo, Tar.: ribu — Java, Old Jav. : iwu — Sumatra, Gayo : ribu — Malay Penin- sula, Mai.: ribu — Madagascar, Hova: a-riuu — Eastern Border, Bim.: riwu.
Note. — In Old Jav. iwu the r ought not to have disappeared, for it was originally an r of a different shade from the one in ratus, where the r has rightly disappeared in strict accordance with the R-laws in Old Jav. (see § 190) . ”

“ Ṫ [See also Essay IV, § 311, 1 ]
‡ [See also Essay IV, § 319.] ↑ [See also Essay IV, § 35, II.] ↑ [See also Essay III, §§ 35, I, 37, IL] ↑ [As to the use of articles before proper names, see the footnote to §91.] ”