Alfred Chapman and Valentine Walbran Chapman

“ In endeavouring to make a pan of less power do as much and as good work as one of greater power, they have imagined many ingenious mechanical contrivances, such as currents produced mechanically to promote evaporation and crystallization, feeding the pan from many points in order to spread the feed equally throughout the mass of sugar being cooked, and so on. ”

“ But the great achievement of recent manufacture is the production, without the use of animal charcoal, of a cheaper, but good and wholesome article, in appearance equal to refined sugar for all intents and purposes, except for making preserves of fruits in the old-fashioned way. ”

“ But the efficiency of all depends on the process of almost imperceptible yet continuous evaporation and the methodical addition of syrup, and not on the idiosyncrasies of the experts who manage them; and there is no doubt that in large commercial processes of manufacture the simpler the apparatus used for obtaining a desired result, and the more easily it is understood, the better it will be for the manufacturer. ”

“ A further saving of juice was sometimes possible if the market prices of sugar were such as to compensate for the cost of evaporating an increased quantity of added water, but a limit was imposed by the fact that water might be used in excess. Hence in the latest designs for large factories it has been proposed that as much normal juice as can be extracted by double crushing only shall be treated by itself, and that the megass shall then be soused with twice as much water as there is juice remaining in it ”

“ The choice of the size of the crystals to be produced in a given pan depends upon the market for which they are intended. It is of course presupposed that the juice has been properly defecated, because without this no amount of skill and knowledge in cooking in the pan will avail; the sugar resulting must be bad, either in colour or grain, or both, and certainly in polarizing power. ”

“ The hexoses so obtained are not necessarily identical: thus cane sugar yields d-glucose and d-fructose (invert sugar) ; milk sugar and melibiose give d-glucose and d-galactose, whilst maltose yields only glucose. Chemically they appear to be ether anhydrides of the hexoses, the union being effected by the aldehyde or alcohol groups, and in consequence they are related to the ethers of glucose and other hexoses, i.e. to the alkyl glucosides. Cane sugar has no reducing power and does not form an hydrazone or osazone ”

“ It would appear that the purchasing power of the inhabitants of India has increased of late years, and there is a growing demand for refined sugar, fostered by the circumstance that modern processes of manufacture can make a quality of sugar, broadly speaking, equal to sugar refined by animal charcoal, without using charcoal, and so the religious objections to the refined sugars of, old days have been overcome. ”

“ But it is obvious that it would not pay a planter to sell canes at 45.21⁄2d. a ton instead of at 10s. a ton, any more than it would pay a factory to make only 62.2 tons of sugar in 24 hours, or 6220 tons in the crop of 100 days, instead of 10,000 tons. Hence arises the imperative necessity of good cultivation by the planter, and of circumspection in the purchase and acceptance of canes on the part of the manufacturer. ”

“ If a very large firm grain like sugar-candy is required the syrup when first brought into the pan must be of low density, say 20° to 21° Beaumé, but if a smaller grain be wanted it can easily be obtained from syrup of 27° to 28° Beaumé. On some plantations making sugar for particular markets and use in refineries it is the custom to make only one class of sugar, by boiling the molasses produced by the purging of one strike with the sugar in the next strike. ”

“ A comparatively small stream strikes the wheel with a pressure equivalent to a great head, say 300 ft., and as the quantity of water and number of jets striking the wheel can be regulated with the greatest ease and nicety, each machine can without danger be quickly brought up to its full speed when purging high-class sugars, or allowed to run slowly when purging low-class sugars, until the heavy, gummy molasses have been expelled; and it can then be brought up to its full speed for finally drying the sugar in the basket, a boon which all practical sugar-makers will appreciate. ”

“ On the other hand, the advocates of admitting the feed into a vacuum pan in many minute streams appeal rather to the ignorant and incompetent sugar-boiler than to a man who, knowing his business thoroughly, will boil 150 tons of hot raw sugar in a pan in a few hours, feeding it through a single pipe and valve 10 in. ”

“ It is unquestionably better and easier to evaporate in vacuo than in an open pan, and with a better system of firing, a more liberal provision of steam generators, and multiple-effect evaporators of improved construction, a far larger yield of sugar is obtained from the juice than was possible of attainment in those days, and the megass often suffices as fuel for the crop. ”

“ In certain districts, notably in the Straits Settlements, syrup is prepared as described above for crystallization in a vacuum pan, but instead of being cooked in vacuo it is slowly boiled up in open double-bottom pans. These pans are sometimes heated by boiling oil, with the idea that under such conditions the sugar which is kept stirred all the time as it thickens cannot be burnt or caramelized; but the same object can be attained more economically with steam of a given pressure by utilizing its latent heat. ”

“ Fischer has proposed formulae for the important disaccharoses, and in conjunction with Armstrong devised a method for determining how the molecule was built up, by forming the osone of the sugar and hydrolysing, whereupon the hexosone obtained indicates the aldose part of the molecule. Lactose is thus found to be glucosido-galactose and melibiose a galactosido-glucose. ”

“ In the best organized modern cane sugar estates as much as 121⁄2% of the weight of the canes treated is obtained in crystal sugar of high polarizing power, although in Louisiana, where cultivation and manufacture are alike most carefully and admirably carried out, the yield in sugar is only about 7% of the weight of the canes, and sometimes, but seldom, as much as 9%. ”

“ In Mexico filters filled with dry powdered megass have been found very efficient for removing the large quantity of impurities contained in the juice expressed from the very vigorous but rank canes grown in that wonderfully fertile country, but unless constant care is taken in managing them, and in changing them at the proper time, there is great risk of inversion taking place, with consequent loss of sugar. ”

“ Sugars are also liable to fermentation. [1] Our knowledge of the chemical structure of the monosaccharosés may be regarded as dating from 1880, when Zincke suspected some to be ketone alcohols, for it was known that glucose and fructose, for example, yielded penta-acetates, and on reduction gave hexahydric alcohols, which, when reduced by hydriodic acid, gave normal and secondary hexyliodide. The facts suggested that the six carbon atoms formed a chain, and that a hydroxy group was attached to five of them, for it is very rare for two hydroxy groups to be attached to the same carbon atom. ”

“ Great Britain, instead of agreeing to prohibit the importation of bounty-fed sugar, was allowed to permit it under certain limits. Russia, which gave bounties, was to be allowed to send into European markets not more than 1,000,000 tons within the next five years, and Great Britain undertook to give certificates guaranteeing that sugar refined in the United Kingdom and exported had not been bounty-fed. The renewal of the convention was disapproved by certain Liberal politicians, who insisted that the price of sugar had been raised by the convention ”

“ These reactions permit the transformation of an aldose into a ketose; the reverse change can only be brought about by reducing the ketose to an alcohol, and oxidizing this compound to an aldehyde. It is seen that aldoses and ketoses which differ stereochemically in only the two final carbon atoms must yield the same osazone; and since d-mannose, d-glucose, and d-fructose do form the same osazone (d-glucosazone) differences either structural or stereochemical must be placed in the two final carbon atoms. ”

“ Recently, however, a well-known sugar maker in Germany has altered his battery in such manner that instead of having to open a large door below the cells in order to discharge them promptly, he opens a comparatively small valve and, applying compressed air at the top of the cell, blows the whole contents of spent slices up a pipe to the drying apparatus, thus saving not only a great deal of time but also a great deal of labour of a kind which is both arduous and painful, especially during cold weather. ”

“ Since the specific gravity of hot liquor is less than that of cold liquor and since the specific gravity of the scum and particles of solid matter in suspension varies so slightly with the temperature that practically it remains constant, the hot liquor rises to the top of the vessel, and the scums and particles of solid matter in suspension separate themselves from it and fall to the bottom. ”

“ Finally, boiling water is admitted and forces out all the last liquor, and then continues to run and wash out the sweets until only a trace remains. This weak solution, called “sweet water,” is sometimes used for melting the raw sugar, or it is evaporated in a multiple-effect apparatus to 27° Beaumé density, passed through the char filter, and cooked in the vacuum pan like the other liquors. After the sweets have come away, cold water is passed through the char until no trace of lime or sulphate of lime is found in it ”

“ The curing or preparation of the crystals for the market by separating the molasses from them. Extraction of Juice.—The juice is extracted from canes by squeezing them between rollers. In India at the present day there are thousands of small mills worked by hand, through which Extraction by Pressure the peasant cultivators pass their canes two or three at a time, squeezing them a little, and, extracting perhaps a fourth of their weight in juice, from which they make a substance resembling a dirty sweetmeat rather than sugar. In Barbadoes there are still many estates making good Mascabado sugar ”

“ An objection to the top cap arrangement is, that if the volume or feed is large enough to lift the top roll from the cane roll, it will simultaneously lift it from the megass roll, so that the megass will not be as well pressed as it ought to be; and an objection to the side cap arrangement on the megass roll as well as to the top cap arrangement is, that in case more canes are fed in at one end of the rolls than at the other, the roll will be pushed out farther at one end than at the other ”

“ On other estates the second sugars, or sugars produced from boiling molasses alone, are not purged to dryness, but when sufficiently separated from their mother-liquor are mixed with the defecated juice, thereby increasing its saccharine richness, and after being converted into syrup in the usual manner are treated in the vacuum pan as first sugars, which in fact they really are. ”

“ The severance of the agricultural work, i.e. cane-growing, from the manufacturing work, sugar-making, must obviously conduce to better and more profitable work of both kinds.
The use of multiple-effect evaporation made it possible to raise the steam for all the work required to be done in a well-equipped Green Bagasse as Fuel.factory, making crystals, under skilful management, by means of the bagasse alone proceeding from the canes ground, without the aid of other fuel. ”

“ The sap is collected in spring, just before the foliage develops, and is procured by making a notch or boring a hole in the stem of the tree about 3 ft. from the ground. A tree may yield 3 gallons of juice a day and continue flowing for six weeks; but on an average on y about 4 lb of sugar are obtained from each tree, 4 to 6 gallons of sap giving 1 lb of sugar. The sap is purified and concentrated in a simple manner, the whole work being carried on by farmers, who themselves use much of the product for domestic and culinary purposes. ”

“ In Australia, Demerara, Cuba, Java and Peru double crushing and maceration (first used on a commercial scale in Demerara by the late Hon. William Russell) have been generally adopted; and in many places, especially in the Hawaiian Islands, triple crushing (i.e. passing the canes through three consecutive sets of rollers, in order to extract everything possible of extraction by pressure) is employed. In the south of Spain, in some favoured spots where sugar-canes can be grown, they are submitted even to four successive crushing. ”

“ A fresh conference of the powers assembled at Brussels, on the invitation of the Belgian government, on the 7th of June 1898; and although the British delegates were not empowered to consent to a penal clause imposing countervailing duties on bountied sugar, the Belgian premier, who presided, was able to assure them that if Great Britain would agree to such a clause, he could guarantee the accession of the governments of Germany, Austria, Holland and his own. ”

“ In places where work is carried on day and night throughout the week, the standard type of evaporator lends itself more readily to cleaning operations than any other. It is obviously easier to brush out and clean vertical tubes open at both ends, and about 6 ft. long, on which the scale has already been loosened by the aid of boiling with dilute muriatic acid or a weak solution of caustic soda in water, than it is to clean either the inside or the outside of horizontal tubes more than double the length. ”

“ A small pipe entering below the false bottom allows the air in the cistern to escape as it is displaced by the water or syrup. In some refineries this pipe, which is carried up to a higher level than the top of the cistern, is fitted with a whistle which sounds as long as the air escapes. When the sound ceases the cistern is known to be full, and the entrance of further water or syrup is stopped. The syrup in the cistern is allowed to remain for about twelve hours, by which time the char will have absorbed all the colouring matter in it, as well as the lime. ”

“ The vacuum pan is erected at a height which commands the crystallizers, each of which will, as in days gone by in Cuba, hold the contents of the pan, and these in their turn are set high enough to allow the charge to fall into the feeding-trough of the centrifugal, thus obviating the necessity of any labour to remove the raw sugar from the time it leaves the vacuum pan to the time it falls into the centrifugals. ”

“ The whole of the sugar produced in India is consumed In the country and sugar is imported, the bulk of it being cane sugar coming from Mauritius and Java, and about 85% of the import, is of high quality resembling refined sugar. ”

“ The small flowers or spikelets are borne in pairs on the ultimate branches of a much branched feathery plume-like terminal grey inflorescence, 2 ft. or more long. Production of flowers is uncertain under cultivation and seed is formed very rarely. The plant is readily propagated by cuttings, a piece of the stem bearing buds at its nodes will root rapidly when placed in sufficiently moist ground. The sugar-cane is widely cultivated in the tropics and some sub-tropical countries, but is not known as a wild plant. ”

“ All their endeavours have obtained at best but a doubtful success, for they have overlooked the fact that to evaporate a given weight of water from the syrup in a vacuum pan at least an equal weight (or in practice about 15% more) of steam must be condensed, and the first cost of mechanical agitators together with the expenditure they involve for motive power and maintenance, must be put against the slight saving in the heating surface effected by their employment. ”

“ It has been found in practice advantageous to prepare the canes for crushing in the mills, as above described, by passing them through a pair of preparing rolls which are grooved or indented in such manner as to draw in and flatten down the canes, no matter in which way they are thrown or heaped upon the cane-carrier, and thus prepare them for feeding the first mill of the series; thus the work of crushing is carried on uninterruptedly and without constant stoppages from the mills choking, as is often the case when the feed is heavy and the canes are not prepared. ”

“ The sugar-cane was introduced by the Arabs in the middle ages into Egypt, Sicily and the south of Spain where it flourished until the abundance of sugar in the colonies caused its cultivation to be abandoned. ”