Christopher Parkinson Brooks

“ It is impossible to enumerate all the little points in the management of looms, which it is the overlooker’s duty to perform; and only long practical experience can teach their proper performance. However, neglecting the derangements, which cause faults in the cloth, and which will be treated of in the next chapter, we will refer to some of the commoner mishaps. The shuttle flying out of the loom is caused generally by some obstruction in the shed, floats, projecting reed, top of shed too low or bottom too high, or by a crooked spindle or bad picker. ”

“ From a consideration of spinning we arrive at a definition of the manufacturing processes.
Unlike the spinning which is carried on in a building five or six storeys high, the manufacture of cotton goods takes place in a “shed,” as much of the work as is possible being carried on on the ground floor. The weft yarn, or that which is laid transversely in the cloth, leaves the mule in the condition in which it is required at the loom, but the twist or warp yarn passes through several “preparatory” processes to fit it for the operation in the weaving ”

“ The speed of tappets is an important subject for calculation in connection with the loom. When the tappets are on the tappet shaft they are always plain, and are driven at half the speed of the crank-shaft, in consequence of the latter shaft only representing one pick, while the tappet shaft, [3] carrying two picking plates, represents two picks. Should the tappets be on the twill shaft, and driven from the tappet shaft, then the calculation is simple—e.g., say four picks to the round are required, then the crank-shaft must revolve four times for the twill shaft once. ”

“ In some North-East Lancashire towns five and six-loom weavers are not infrequent on narrow strong goods. The weaver’s duties require some little skill, and consist of piecing up the broken ends of warp and drawing them through the heald and reeds, filling the shuttles with weft and placing them in the loom as those in working become empty, oiling, doffing “cuts,” putting in the coloured headings—an important part of dhooty weaving—oiling, and performing simple repairs.
The wages obtainable on ordinary goods, such as shirtings and printers, should not be less than 11s. ”

“ The order in which the ends are drawn through the healds is most important, although for plain and simple fancy work one system is generally adopted; for fancier cloths the difference of draft is great, and regulates to a great extent the kind of figure produced on the cloth. These healds and reed are required in [51] the loom, being of great importance with regard to the proper interlacing and guidance of the ends. The healds, sometimes called heddles or gears, are of cotton or worsted, and are used in making the shed for the passage of the shuttle. ”

“ Considering that a mixing made from a fixed quantity of certain ingredients is not generally used for percentages ranging more than 15 per cent., and that different mixings are required all the way up to 150 or 200 per cent., whilst at the same time not more than two or three manufacturers may use exactly similar mixings even for the same degree of weighting, it will readily be seen that the mixings employed in the cotton trade are innumerable. This difference has been caused by the jealous care taken by a sizer to preserve to himself the recipe of his own mixing, and rightly so. ”

“ A stripe border is made by warping the necessary coarse ends (to form the selvage) with the plain ends. To put in the cross border, either the drop-box loom is used with two or more shuttles having different counts of yarn, or, as is more general, the shed is kept open for the reception of several picks of weft in the same counts as the body of the handkerchief. This is easily done by the dobby, which also continues to hold the weft at each selvage by a few plain ends worked from a different jack, or by a catch cord. ”

“ The machine required for the weaving of plain cloth, or cloth in which each end of weft and twist is interwoven alternately and on the face of which no figure is shown, is simple. The warp yarn is contained on a beam, the weft is placed in a shuttle, and the loom consists of the necessary framework and mechanism for holding the warp in the required position, passing the weft between alternate warp threads. ”

“ A comparison of the position of the cotton trade to-day with what it was some thirty years ago shows a decided change in one respect—i.e., in the firms conducting the business. Many of the old private firms have disappeared and their places been taken by companies, while, for many years back, the tendency has appeared to be in favour of carrying on the trade by the co-operation of small capitalists. ”

“ Here the warp is taken, the ends sundered out and run over a frame to the weaver’s beam. The reader will readily see that the extra processes of balling after warping, and beaming after sizing, as well as two machines required for sizing, are sufficient to explain the fact that ball systems are dying out, and not only for this reason, but also because of the uncertainty as to what extent goods can be weighted, the percentages being very irregular. The warps are often streaky also, but the thread preserves a rounder and stronger formation than at the slasher frame. ”

“ Even in a manual treating of the weaving processes it is not foreign to refer succinctly to the cotton and the treatment it has undergone to fit it for use in a weaving shed. The manufacturer who has had experience in a spinning mill often finds the knowledge acquired there to stand him in good stead in the selection and use of the yarn. ”

“ In weaving, an accident which not infrequently occurs is the stoppage of the shuttle when it has only traversed a portion of the distance across the warp. A case of this shuttle trapping causes the breakage of more or fewer ends, and consequently arrangements are made for preventing much damage, either by arresting the motion of the loom suddenly, in case of a fast reed, or by having a reed hanging loosely behind the shuttle so as to give way in case of a “mash.” ”

“ The known pre-eminence of Manchester as the market town is attributed in part to the necessity for some common centre where a meeting of the representatives of each of these industries could take place to transact the business of the trade. The Exchange of Cottonopolis is that centre. Here, every day of the week, but more especially on the Tuesday and Friday market days from all parts where the cotton trade is conducted, the spinner goes to meet the manufacturer, the manufacturer to meet the merchant, who in turn represents all countries to which our manufactures are [3] exported ”

“ The ring frame is a constant spinner, and as fast as the yarn is spun it is wound on a bobbin, while the necessary twist is put in by a traveller shaped [C] revolving round a ring. It will thus be seen that the ring frame is only suited for warp yarns, mainly in consequence of having to use a bobbin, which of course requires modifications in the shuttle and box of the loom, and even then is disadvantageous. The ring frame is suitable and preferable for warp yarn up to 40’s, where the spinner also reels, warps or weaves his own spinning. The mule spins both weft and twist. ”

“ Thus, a 40-inch loom may weave a cloth with a few empty dents at the centre, whilst on each side of the space thus caused the warp threads are crossed (on the gauze principle) between each pick to make a firmer selvage than could be got by ordinary lifting. The weft threads are then slit along this space by a sharp knife, giving two cloths, each 20 inches wide. One system of forming the selvage is by having an extra loop attached to the top stave of one heald, and carrying a thread which is drawn through the other heald. ”

“ Thus if the warp in a piece of cloth be composed of 10lbs. of cotton covered with 4lbs. of size, the warp will have been sized to the extent of 40 per cent. The amount of size on cotton warps varies from 3 to 200 per cent. In those classes of goods which are intended for dyeing or bleaching, and which are generally sold by the counts of yarn, it is obviously not wise to add foreign matter to be washed out again, but in those exported goods which have to be made of a fixed weight, or certain feel, heavy sizing is adopted. ”

“ It will be easily seen how the revolution of the picking plate actuates quickly the picking shaft, and consequently the end of the stick, with an increased speed. The blow is transmitted to the picker and the shuttle driven across the slay into a similar box at the other side.
When a new shed has been formed by the healds it is driven back again.
A smooth pick is most desirable, and for this reason the stud on the picking shaft must be set so as to receive a smooth side blow from the plate, neither a downward nor an upward one. ”

“ Two sets of knives are used, one lifting when the loom picks from the right-hand side, the other when picking from the left, thus reducing the speed of the knife one-half; whilst as the hooks for one pick are being used, the other knife can be preparing for the next shed, and when lifting, keep up any leash several picks in succession, thus saving time, and so enabling the production to be increased. The Fig. 64 shows a double-action machine with a single cylinder, 400 hooks and swing batten, giving at least 50 picks per minute greater speed than a single lift with less vibration and strain. ”

“ The mule is automatic in all its movements for spinning the yarn and winding it on the spindle in the form of a cop—i.e., a cylindrical coil of yarn, cone-shaped at each end. In this machine the spinning is intermittent—i.e., for a few seconds the different portions of the machines are engaged in drawing out the roving to the required fineness until about 64 inches have been spun, the slack being taken up by a moving carriage bearing the spindles, then a few seconds are employed in drawing back the carriage and winding the yarn on the spindles. ”

“ In fixing upon the site, the essentials for a suitable position are a foundation sufficiently damp and of such a nature as not to easily part with moisture, even in hot weather, so as to preserve that humid atmosphere so essential to good weaving, more especially where heavy sizing is resorted to; yet there must be no yielding, for it is of vital importance that vibration be reduced to a minimum, both in weaving, winding and warping, to avoid breakages of yarn. ”

“ For the simpler classes of fancy weaving, designated stavework, tappets are often used. These are arrangements of plates carrying projections to raise the healds when required, the plates being placed so that the projections in several plates which are to act at one pick are in line with each other, so as to raise the different healds at one and the same time. Tappets are fixed either above the loom (and are named motions or Jamieson’s tappets) , or at the side of the loom—as, for instance, the Woodcroft tappets. ”

“ This has for its object the combination of the warp and weft yarns, interlacing one with the other in such manner as to produce a firm texture, fitted for the varying uses to which cotton cloth is adapted—for warmth, for ornament, for trade purposes—for sale. The power looms of the present day, as employed in the cotton industry, vary very little in construction in the most widely separated districts, unless for very different classes of work, then what modifications are required consist of extra mechanism added to our common type—the plain loom. ”

“ The spongy and size-absorbent properties are obtained at the expense of the strength of the yarn, and therefore a good sizing twist [34] often winds badly. The colour of the warp yarn is not important, and therefore whiter cottons are often reserved for weft. Fine twists are spun out of longer and finer cottons forming a close spun thread, which is used for better classes of cloth lightly sized. Strength and elasticity are great advantages in twist, and these properties should be obtained and preserved for the last process of weaving. ”

“ If warp or cloth is sized or finished damp, then stored in a dry room for a considerable time, mildew may be expected, unless antiseptics have been used. An antiseptic is a substance tending to destroy vegetable life, and of antiseptics muriate of zinc and carbolic acid are the most suitable for sizing [37] purposes. As chloride of magnesium does not prevent mildew, indeed, its use being rather favourable to the development of that evil, the name anti, or antiseptic, usually given to it is misleading. ”

“ The bowl should be in contact with the tappet during the whole revolution, and thus give an easy tread—jerky motion in either treading or picking being very detrimental to good weaving. A good shed should be almost as large as the shuttle at the point where it passes through, quite clear from obstructions of any kind, and the lower half of it not too low, or, [58] as it is termed, not “bottoming” too much, for when too low the warp is frayed by the movement of the slay. ”

“ Turkey reds is also extensive. In Ireland there are three cotton-spinning firms, three cotton-weaving firms, and one both spinning and weaving, with a total of 70,900 spindles, and 2501 power looms.
Summarising the different classes of work into which the industry is divided, we may allot to the coarse plain trade the Rossendale Valley and Rochdale, locating the medium plain trade in Blackburn, Burnley and Darwen, with the finest plain goods in Accrington and Preston, the light fancy trade in Preston, Chorley, and Ashton, and the heavy fancy in Bolton and Bury. ”

“ Reedy cloth is caused when a few dents of the reed are bent out of position.
Bad sides are either slattered, caused by unsatisfactory bottoming, or are frayed and raw from lack of sufficient side ends. Occasionally a bad picker catches the weft and causes a peculiar ridgy selvage.
Floats are the result of obstruction in the shed generally, broken twist keeping down the warp threads and preventing their interweaving with the weft; a raw place is caused which can generally be obliterated. ”

“ Occasionally, where a manufacturer possessing the cop winding frames uses ring bobbins, the yarn is unwound from them in the ordinary way over the nose of the bobbin, and a little additional drag is applied.
Winding is performed by women, who are remunerated at the rate of about 1/4d. per lb. for 32’s T, and proportionately more for higher counts. The most frequent fault in the shape of the bobbin is in its being soft near one of the flanges: often dirt gathering in the guides causes this, or the traverse is not set half-way of the bobbin when the mangle wheel crab is opposite to the pinion. ”

“ Mashes are on a larger scale. If the shuttle is entrapped without the reed flying out, in loose reed looms, or the protector acting in fast reeds, the twist is entirely broken out for several inches in the width. To piece up all these ends leaves an ugly place, and it is occasionally preferable to weave on and seam the piece, after cutting out the obnoxious part. A shuttle spelling will cause the same effect as trapping.
Broken picks are caused by several layers of weft coming off the cop into one shed. ”

“ The slasher is the machine generally used for applying the size to the yarn; the usual name for the process is [40] taping, a word derived from the old tape frame in use 30 years ago, and handed down to its successor, the slasher. One sizing frame is required for 300 looms, the width of the frame being adapted to the size of beam required for the loom; this is a few inches wider than the cloth. A common size is a 9/8; this makes warps 54 inches wide between the flanges, the drying cylinder face being 60 inches wide; a 6/4 is 60 inches beam and 66 inches on face ”

“ In getting an order passed through a weaving shed the first point, after calculating the particulars for each piece or cut, is to get the length for warping and sizing. In the case of an order for 3750 pieces of the before-mentioned dimensions, the total length of warp is calculated thus—38 yards for one piece × 3750 = 142,500 yards, allowing nothing for waste in length, as the tension on the yarn in process will stretch it sufficiently to allow for that, and perhaps a little more. ”