Lynne C. Murphy

“ With increasing interest in the earth’s space environment, a satellite was launched on September 7, 1967, to investigate the impact of space on biological processes. Biosatellite 2 was the second satellite in the program of three such vehicles. Frog eggs, plants, micro-organisms and insects were placed in orbit to enable scientists to study the combined effects of weightlessness, artificially produced radiation, and the absence of the normal day-night cycle on these organisms. ”

“ A Redstone booster, burning liquid oxygen and hydrazine-base fuel, lifted Freedom 7 from the launch pad at Cape Canaveral. The vehicle’s single engine developed 35,380 kilograms (78,000 pounds) of thrust.
The structure of the Mercury is titanium, covered with steel and beryllium shingles. The heat shield at the base of the spacecraft is of beryllium.
The heat shield served as a “heat sink” by storing the heat created by the spacecraft’s reentry into the earth’s atmosphere. The spacecraft reached the ocean before the heat could penetrate the interior of the craft. ”

“ The H-1 liquid-propellant rocket engine was an outgrowth of the LR-79 which served as the basic power plant for the USAF Thor missile. The H-1 was used in the 8-engine cluster of the first stage of the Saturn 1 and 1B launch vehicles.
The H-1 burns liquid oxygen and a grade of aviation kerosene to produce a total thrust of 92,986 kilograms (205,000 pounds) . Each engine functions as an independent unit, with its own combustion chamber and turbopump, but fuel is drawn from common tanks. ”

“ On February 16, 1961, Scout became the first solid-propellant vehicle to orbit a satellite (Explorer 9) . It is a four-stage launch vehicle that can perform a variety of space and reentry research tasks. Its relatively low cost has made it a popular choice for many satellite programs, including Transit navigation satellites, the Small Astronomy and Small Scientific Satellites, the Beacon Explorer, Hawkeye, Micrometeoroid, Meteoroid Technology, and Solrad satellites. The rocket has also been used extensively to launch foreign satellites. ”

“ Lunar modules do not have to be streamlined for flights through the vacuum of space or to withstand reentry. The lunar module (LM) lifts off from Earth enclosed in a compartment of the Saturn 5 launch vehicle, below the command-service module that houses the astronauts. The command module pulls the LM from its storage area once the spacecraft are on their way to the Moon, and the two travel together until they arrive in lunar orbit. ”

“ Rocket was fired directly through the apex of the balloon. Drawing shows the first stage falling away as second-stage rocket takes over.
Farside was a four-stage rocket launched from a balloon as an extremely high-altitude research vehicle. Achieving heights estimated at 6400 kilometers (4000 miles) . Farside’s instrument payload was intended to study cosmic rays, earth’s magnetic field, certain forms of electromagnetic radiation in space, the presence of interplanetary gases, and the nature of meteoric dust. ”

“ Equipment and experiments on board the orbiting station were designed to accommodate four areas of research: earth observation to further knowledge of natural resources and the earth’s environment; solar observation to increase understanding of solar processes and influences on earth’s environment; study of the effects of long duration weightlessness on man, basic biological processes and adaptability to space flight conditions; and experiments in processing of materials under the unique conditions of weightlessness and vacuum environment of space. ”

“ Communications satellites can be grouped into two broad categories. Passive vehicles reflect signals from one ground station to another. Active satellites accept ground signals and either amplify and rebroadcast them immediately or record messages for later transmission.
The Echo satellite balloons typified the passive category of communications spacecraft. These satellites “bounced” radio signals from one ground station to another. Uninflated Echo payloads were carried into orbit packed in special storage containers. ”

“ From the orbital path, which varied between 160 and 260 kilometers (100 and 160 miles) above Earth, the first American in orbit described the four sunsets he saw and reported that he was able to distinguish a ship’s wake on the ocean below.
Mercury spacecraft had been used in two previous manned suborbital flights which proved that it was a safe vehicle for manned space flights. Later orbital Mercury missions demonstrated that man could live and work in space. ”

“ The rocket has three stages. The first-stage motor, burning kerosene and liquid oxygen, operated for 2 minutes and 20 seconds. The second stage carried the vehicle to an altitude of 210 kilometers (130 miles) , propelled by white-fuming nitric acid and unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine (UDMH) . With propellants exhausted, the upper stages then coasted to 480 kilometers (300 miles) above the surface of the Earth where the solid-propellant third-stage motor fired to place the satellite into orbit. ”

“ The silver and black ascent stage, containing the astronauts’ pressurized compartment and the clusters of rockets that control the spacecraft, fits on top of the shiny gold descent stage that actually touches down on the Moon. The descent stage contains a main, centrally located rocket engine. This segment of the craft remains on the Moon as the crew lifts off in the ascent stage to rejoin the command module. ”

“ The first liquid-propellant rocket engines built by the American Rocket Society were machined from blanks of heat-resistant, cast-aluminum alloy. Engine No. 1 powered the first two rockets designed and constructed by the ARS. It featured combustion chamber walls 12.7 millimeters (1⁄2 inch) thick and burned liquid oxygen and gasoline to produce a thrust of 27.22 kilograms (60 pounds) . Liquid oxygen was pressurized by partial evaporation, while bottled nitrogen forced gasoline from the tank to the engine. ”

“ During the satellite’s planned 52 hours in orbit, it relayed information on the relationship between terrestrial and interplanetary magnetic fields and the solar wind.
To continue the study of solar wind and interplanetary magnetic fields, Explorer 12 was orbited by a Delta launch vehicle on August 16, 1961. It was the first in a series of satellites to study energetic particles in space. These electrons and protons constitute the earth’s radiation belts and they affect weather and other phenomena on Earth. ”

“ The exterior of eight-sided Relay is composed of honeycomb aluminum panels studded with 8215 solar cells.
The world’s first commercial communications satellite was called “Early Bird,” or INTELSAT 1. Built a decade ago by Hughes Aircraft Company for Communications Satellite Corporation (COMSAT) , Early Bird could transmit simultaneously on 240 two-way channels for telephone, telegraph, or data transmission. Transatlantic telephone circuit capability increased by 50 percent once Early Bird went into orbit on April 6, 1965. ”

“ Mariner 10 flew by Venus on February 5, 1974, after a three-month, 240-million-kilometer (150-million-mile) journey that took the Spacecraft halfway around the Sun. Mariner 10 swung around the planet, taking a variety of measurements and photographs of the clouds that obscure the planet’s face. Using the planet’s gravity to “bend” its flight path, Mariner 10 flew on toward encounter with Mercury. ”

“ After World War II, captured V-2 rockets were used to train American technicians in missile launch procedures and to carry the first payloads of scientific instruments into the upper atmosphere in the United States.
The operational V-2 rocket structure consisted of three sections. The nose housed the warhead and control mechanisms. The fuel tanks carried liquid oxygen and alcohol propellants. The rocket engine, turbopumps, and control surfaces were contained in the tail section. ”

“ The ions are accelerated from the engine in the same manner as in the contact ion engine.
A Cesium Ion Rocket Engine
This small contact ion engine produces .0009 kilogram (.002 pound) of thrust by passing vaporized cesium through hot tungsten. On Earth this amount of power is scarcely enough to lift a one-carat jewel an inch off a table, but in the frictionless vacuum of space, it is sufficient to provide attitude control for satellites. It can also accelerate a spacecraft to high interplanetary velocities by operating continuously for thousands of hours. ”

“ The first Wyld rocket motor tested developed 41 kilograms (90 pounds) of thrust for 131⁄2 seconds. It proved so successful that Wyld and other members of the ARS founded Reaction Motors, Inc., to produce and sell rocket engines based on this design.
The performance of motors developed by the ARS prior to World War II was measured on a test stand with built-in fuel and oxidizer tanks and bottled nitrogen gas. The engine was mounted on a carriage, and connected to the stand’s propellant tanks by flexible metal hoses. Thrust was indicated on a pressure gauge. ”

“ The great advantage of the satellite was its ability to provide a continuous flow of information for long periods of time. The first science satellites were the forerunners of later vehicles that would demonstrate the direct benefits that satellites could offer to such varied fields as weather observation and communication. ”

“ The black material is heat-resistant nickel-steel alloy. Each sheet is only .002 millimeters (1/12,000 of an inch) thick. These absorb heat and radiate it back into the blackness of space.
The shiny gold material on the descent stage is aluminum that is thinly coated over plastic film. The thin sheets of plastic and aluminum are used in blankets of up to 25 layers for protection and insulation of the spacecraft.
Prime contractor for the lunar module was Grumman Aerospace Corporation.
The lunar module on exhibit is from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. ”

“ The advent of the earth satellite provided scientists with a new and valuable research tool. Science satellites have been used for such tasks as solar and astronomical observations, biology experiments, or atmospheric investigation. ”

“ All-purpose Rocket for Collecting Atmospheric Sounding (ARCAS) gathers local meteorological data helpful to weather forecasters. Its 5.4-kilogram (12-pound) payload may include instruments which measure temperature, pressure, humidity, wind velocity and direction, and magnetic conditions. The single-stage ARCAS vehicle reaches an altitude of 64 kilometers (40 miles) , propelled by a slow-burning solid-fuel engine which produces 141.4 kilograms (312 pounds) of thrust.
When the ARCAS is boosted by a Sparrow or Sidewinder missile engine, it can reach altitudes of 182,880 meters (600,000 feet) . ”

“ The fin-stabilized X-4 air-to-air missile was guided to its target by means of electrical impulses which passed through two wires connecting the rocket to the launch aircraft until detonation. Once the missile was on its way to the target bomber, the fighter pilot directed its course with a separate small control stick in his cockpit. ”

“ In its highly elliptical orbit, Mariner 9 obtained a sequence of overlapping wide-angle photographs. These were processed by a computer to remove the known variations in Mariner 9 camera response and geometric distortions, as well as to enhance surface detail. The mosaic made from the processed photographs is a pictorial presentation of the Martian surface which shows ridges and craters in the dark regions and on the bright polar caps with equal clarity. Surface features are in correct relationship and perspective, with only a minimum of shading difference between individual photographs. ”

“ The Apollo command/service modules delivered crews to the MDA from which the astronauts could enter Skylab through the hatch in the docking port. In an emergency, two command/service modules could dock at the MDA. The MDA also held equipment for earth resources multispectral photography, materials processing, and astronomy. The Apollo Telescope Mount (ATM) was on top of and controlled by the MDA. It contained six astronomical instruments to obtain information about the Sun.
76. Multiple Docking Adapter.
Solar energy is the prime source of electric power on Skylab. ”

“ Directional Antenna Velocity Control Rocket Engine Fuel Tank Nitrogen Gas Reaction Jets Oxidizer Tank Lenses Micrometeoroid Detectors Flight Programmer Photographic Subsystem Sun Sensor (located under equipment deck) Solar Panel Canopus Star Tracker Inertial Reference Unit Omni Directional Antenna
The Lunar Orbiter project was initiated in 1963 as part of the U.S. Apollo program to land men on the Moon during the decade of the nineteen sixties. ”

“ The M2-F3 tested flight behavior of wingless craft over a wide range of speeds.
The M2-F3’s forerunner, the M2-F2, made 16 flights—all unpowered—between July 1966 and May 1967. On May 10, it crashed on landing, partly due to control instability. The craft was rebuilt, and the center fin was added. This modification effectively solved the control problem, and the new craft, designated M2-F3, logged 27 more flights by December 1972. ”

“ The Agena engine was the first which could be stopped and restarted in space.
The Agena launch vehicle was developed and manufactured by the Lockheed Missiles and Space Company for the United States Air Force.
The Agena-B is from the United States Air Force and the Lockheed Missile and Space Company.
32. The Agena Target Docking Vehicle seen from the Gemini 8 spacecraft during rendezvous approach.
28 Science Satellites
33. Vanguard 1, second American satellite launched. Information from Vanguard showed that the Earth is not quite round. ”

“ The fin-stabilized rocket was powered by a liquid-propellant engine that burned a self-igniting fuel and oxidizer combination. Use of these propellants eliminated the need for an ignition system. By March 1946, these rockets had attained altitudes of over 72.4 kilometers (45 miles) with a booster. The WAC Corporal was later used as a second stage on a German V-2 rocket. This U.S. program, code-named “Bumper,” tested techniques for ignition and separation of stages at high altitudes. ”