Alton D. Adams

“ If a generator and transmission line are so designed that the rise of voltage at the generator terminals just corresponds with the loss of voltage on the line when the output of that generator alone passes over it to some particular point, then the pressure at that point may be held nearly constant for all loads if no energy is drawn from the line elsewhere. These several conditions necessary to make regulation by the compounding of generators effective can seldom be met in practice. ”

“ As long as each electric system was confined to a single city or town a broken insulator pin could be quickly replaced, and any material interruption of service from such a cause was improbable. Where the light and power supply of a city, however, depends on a long transmission line, as is now the case in many instances, and where the line voltage is so great that contact between a wire and a cross-arm will result in the speedy destruction of the latter by burning, a broken pin may easily lead to a serious interruption of the service. ”

“ When a transmission line must carry a load of stationary or railway motors, it is a common practice to divide the line into at least two circuits, [239] and to devote one circuit exclusively to railway or motor work and another to lighting, at any one time. In some cases this division of the transmission system into two parts, one devoted to the lighting and the other to the motor load, is carried out not only as to the sub-station apparatus and the line, but also as to the transformers, generators, water-wheels, and even the penstocks at the power-plant. ”

“ It follows at once from this fact that there must be cogent reasons, apart from the matter of first cost, if the general substitution of steel towers for wooden poles on transmission lines is to be justified on economic grounds. During fifteen years the electric transmission of energy from distant water-powers to important centres of population has grown from the most humble beginnings to the delivery of hundreds of thousands of horse-power in the service of millions of people, and the lines for this work are supported, with very few exceptions, on wooden poles. ”

“ Lightning arresters are wrongfully named, for their true purpose is not to arrest or stop lightning, but to offer it so easy a path to the ground that it will not force its way through the insulation of the line or of machinery connected to the system. The requirements of a lightning arrester are in a degree conflicting, because the resistance of the path it offers must be so low as to allow discharges of atmospheric electricity to earth and so high as to prevent any flow of current between the transmission lines. ”

“ Distribution lines necessarily follow the public streets in order to reach consumers, but the saving of the cost of a private right of way and ease of access are the main considerations which tend to keep transmission lines on streets and highways. Except in very rough or swampy country, the difficulty of access to a pole line on a private right of way is not a serious matter and should be given but little weight. The cost of a private right of way may be more important, and should be compared with the additional cost of the pole line and conductors if erected on the public highway. ”

“ As soft copper has greater conductivity per unit of area than any of the other available metals, it clearly has an advantage over all of them as to inductance and increase of resistance with alternating current.
At very high voltages there is an important leakage of energy between the conductors of a circuit, and this loss varies inversely with the distance between these conductors. Thus it happens that inductance makes it desirable to bring the parallel wires of a circuit close together, while the leakage of energy from wire to wire makes it desirable to carry them far apart. ”

“ When the outside surface of an insulator is wet, as during a moderate rain, it seems that the under surface of the insulator, and the distance through air from the lower wet edge of the insulator to the pin or cross-arm, make up most of the insulation that prevents arcing over from the wire to the pin or cross-arm. It further appears that it is useless to extend the distance across the dry under surface of the insulator indefinitely without a corresponding increase of the direct distance through air from the lower wet edge of the insulator to the wood of cross-arm or pin. ”

“ When repairs must be made on a transmission line, as in replacing a broken insulator or setting a pole in the place of one that has burned, it is certainly convenient to have two or more circuits so that one may be out of use while the repairs on it are made. It is practicable, however, to make such repairs on any high-voltage circuit, even when it is in use, provided the conductors are spaced so far apart that there is no chance of making a contact or starting an arc between them. ”

“ If a given amount of power is to be transmitted, at a certain percentage of loss in the line and at a fixed voltage, over distances of 50, 100, and 200 miles, respectively, the foregoing principles lead to the following conclusions: The capacity of transformers, being fixed by the rate of transmission, will be the same for either distance, and their cost is therefore constant. Transformer losses, interest, depreciation, and repairs are also constant. The cost of pole line, depending on its length, will be twice as great at 100 and four times as great at 200 as at 50 miles. ”

“ If a transmission with continuous current is to be carried out at constant pressure the limitation as to the capacity and voltage of each dynamo is about the same as with constant current. Probably more energy is now transmitted by continuous current at constant pressure than by any other method, the greater part being devoted to electric railway work at 500 to 600 volts. Dynamos for about these voltages can readily be had in capacities up to several thousand kilowatts each, but the length of transmission that can be economically carried out at this pressure is comparatively small. ”

“ Electrical resistance in every conductor varies directly with its length, inversely with its area of cross section, and also has a constant factor that depends on the material of which the conductor is composed. This constant factor is always the same for any given material, as pure iron, copper, or aluminum, and is usually taken as the resistance in ohms of a round wire one foot long and 0.001 inch in diameter, of the material to be used for conductors. ”

“ Energy transmitted over long distances must sometimes pass through conductors that are underground or beneath water. In some other cases it is a question of relative advantages merely, whether portions of a transmission line go under water or overhead. Where the transmitted energy must enter a sub-station in the heart of a large city, it not infrequently must go by way of underground conductors without regard to the voltage employed. In some cities the transmission lines may be carried overhead, provided that their voltage is within some moderate figure, but not otherwise. ”

“ Perhaps the most important question relating to the use of water-power in electrical supply is what percentage of the yearly output of energy can be derived from water where this power is sufficient to carry the entire load during a part of the year. With storage area for all surplus water in any season, the amount of work that could be done by a stream might be calculated directly from the records of its annual discharge of water. ”

“ When an alternating current passes through a circuit, the action termed self-induction sets up an electromotive force in the circuit that opposes the flow of current, as does the resistance of the wire, and this is called the inductance of the circuit. ”

“ The rise of electric pressures to thousands and tens of thousands of volts in distribution and transmission systems has vastly increased the difficulty of safe and effective control with open-air switches. The higher the voltage of the circuit to be operated under load the greater must be the distance between the contact parts of each switch and also between adjacent switches. Such switches must also be farther removed from the operators as the voltages of their circuits go up, as a person cannot safely stand very close to an electric arc of several feet or even yards in length. ”

“ If the maximum load that must be carried by a transmission system during a single hour per day requires nearly as much power as can be delivered to the line conductors, either because of lack of water storage or of water itself, even if it is stored, it may be desirable to design these conductors for a small loss at maximum load, rather than to install a steam plant. ”

“ Efficiency of electrical machinery is generally low at partial loads, so that in cases in which the number or capacity of alternating dynamos, transformers, motors, or rotary converters for a transmission would be greater per unit of delivered power than the corresponding number or capacity of machines for a transmission by continuous current, the latter would probably have the advantage in the combined efficiency of machinery at partial loads. ”

“ As it is a law of every electric circuit that the rate of transformation of electric energy to heat or work in each of its several parts is directly proportional to the drop of voltage therein, it follows that a drop of 500 or 1,000 or 2,000 volts in the conductors of a 10,000-volt transmission line at full load would correspond to a power loss of five to ten or twenty per cent respectively. ”

“ Iron seems to be the most desirable material for guard wires because it gives the required mechanical strength and sufficient conductivity at a less cost than copper, aluminum, or bronze, and is easier to handle and less liable to break than steel. It was formerly the practice to staple guard wires to the tops of poles or to the ends of cross-arms, but it was found that the wire was more apt to rust and break at the staple than elsewhere, and in the better class of work such wires are now mounted on small insulators. ”

“ Breaks in transmission conductors are due either to mechanical strains alone, as wind pressure, the falling of trees, or the accumulation of ice, or else to an arc between the conductors that tends to melt them at some point. As a smaller conductor breaks or melts more readily than a large one, the use of two or more circuits instead of a single circuit tends to increase troubles of this sort. ”

“ A transmission that would be entirely impracticable with any percentage of line loss that might be selected, if carried out at some one voltage, might represent a paying business at some higher voltage and any one of several sizes of line conductors. The power that could be delivered by a line of practicable cost, operated at one voltage, might be too small for the purpose in hand, while the available power at a higher voltage might be ample. ”

“ It does not follow from the foregoing that it is always more economical to develop two or more smaller water-powers at different points along a river for transmission to some common centre than it is to concentrate the water at a single larger station by more elaborate hydraulic construction, and then deliver all of the energy over a single transmission line. The single larger hydraulic and electric plant will usually have a first cost larger than that of the several smaller ones, because of the required canals or pipe lines. ”

“ If more than one point of distribution exists on the same transmission line, the regulation at the generating plant must be designed to maintain the desired pressure at only one of these points, leaving regulation at the others to be accomplished by local means. One method of regulation consists in the overcompounding of each generator so that the voltage at its terminals will rise at a certain rate as its load increases. ”

“ In the greater number of transmission systems the generators are direct-connected to either steam-engines or water-wheels, and their speeds of rotation are largely determined by the requirements of these prime movers. Steam-engines can be designed with some regard to the desirable speeds for direct-connection to dynamos, but water-wheels are less flexible in this particular. Each type of wheel has its peripheral speed mainly determined by the head of water under which it may be required to operate, and variation from this speed means serious loss of efficiency. ”