William C. Roberts-Austen and Francis H. Neville

“ This halt in the cooling, due to the heat evolved in the solidification of the first crystals that form in the liquid, is called the freezing-point of the mixture; the freezing-point can generally be observed with considerable accuracy. In the case of a pure substance, and of a certain small class of mixtures, there is no further fall in temperature until the substance has become completely solid, but, in the case of most mixtures, after the freezing-point has been reached the temperature soon begins to fall again, and as the amount of solid increases the temperature becomes lower and lower. ”

“ It is therefore desirable to conduct the polishing so as to make this layer as thin as possible: it is claimed for alumina that it can be so used as to produce a much thinner surface layer than that due to the employment of rouge. The surface layer is very readily removed by appropriate liquid reagents, and, the true surface of the metal having been laid bare, the etching reagent acts differently on the individual substances in the alloy and the pattern can thus be emphasized to any required extent. ”

“ Regarded as descriptive of the genesis of an alloy from a uniform liquid containing two or more metals, the term is not incorrect, and it may have acted as a signpost towards profitable methods of research. But modern work has shown that, although alloys sometimes contain solid solutions, the solid alloy as a whole is often far more like a conglomerate rock than a uniform solution. ”

“ If we melt copper and add to it about 30% of zinc, or 20% of tin, we obtain uniform liquids which when solidified are the well-known substances brass and bell-metal. These substances are for all practical purposes new metals. The difference in the appearance of brass and copper is familiar to everyone; brass is also much harder than copper and much more suitable for being turned in a lathe. Similarly, bell-metal is harder, more sonorous and more brittle than either of its components. It is almost impossible by mechanical means to detect the separate ingredients in such an alloy ”

“ Every micrographer has his own views as to the form of an installation to be adopted, and it will therefore be well to give an illustration of a definite apparatus which has been found to give satisfactory results. It consists of a microscope A with a firm base placed in a horizontal position. The microscope can be connected by a tube B with the expanded camera CC, at the end of which is the usual frame to receive the photographic plate. A practised observer can focus on a plate of clear glass by the aid of a subsidiary low-power microscope lens. ”

“ Solid solutions are probably very common in alloys, so that when an alloy of two metals shows two constituents under the microscope it is never safe to infer, without further evidence, that these are the two pure metals. Sometimes the whole alloy is a uniform solid solution. This is the case with the copper-tin alloys containing less than 9% by weight of tin; a microscopic examination reveals only one material, a copper-like substance, the tin having disappeared, being in solution in the copper. ”

“ Tinted crystals may thus be distinguished from the investing layer caused by the presence of a minute quantity of another constituent. The temper colours produced by heating iron or steel in air are well known. Carbide of iron is less oxidizable than the iron with which it is intimately associated, and it assumes a brown tint, while the iron has reached the blue stage. ”

“ It may conveniently be extended to similar mixtures of sulphur and selenium or tellurium, of bismuth and sulphur, of copper and cuprous oxide, and of iron and carbon, in fact to all cases in which substances can be made to mix in varying proportions without very marked indication of chemical action. The term “alloy” does not necessarily imply obedience to the laws of definite and multiple proportion or even uniformity throughout the material; but some alloys are homogeneous and some are chemical compounds. In what follows we shall confine our attention principally to metallic alloys. ”

“ The filament of a Nernst lamp can be used as the source of light; though not so brilliant as the arc it possesses the great advantage of perfect immobility. For the best results, especially with high powers, the source of light must be small, so that its image can be focussed on to the surface of the object ”

“ Much information as to the nature of an alloy can be obtained by placing several small ingots of the same alloy in a furnace which is above the melting-point of the alloy, and allowing the temperature to fall slowly and uniformly. We then extract one ingot after another at successively lower temperatures and chill each ingot by dropping it into water or by some other method of very rapid cooling. ”

“ In some cases the alloy may be attacked electrolytically by exposing it for a few minutes to a weak electric current in a bath of very dilute sulphuric acid. Certain organic bodies give very satisfactory results. The Japanese, for instance, produce most remarkable effects by simple reagents of which an infusion of certain forms of grass is a not unimportant constituent. ”

“ The presence in an alloy of a eutectic which solidifies at a much lower temperature than the main mass, implies a great reduction in tenacity, especially if it is to be used above the ordinary temperature as in the case of pipes conveying super-heated steam. It has also been stated that alloys of metals with similar melting-points have higher tenacity when the atomic volumes of the constituent metals differ than when they are nearly the same. ”

“ Tincture of iodine also affords a means of identifying lead in certain alloys by the formation of a yellow iodide of lead, while the vapour of iodine has in certain cases been used to tint the constituents. Thin coloured films may often be produced by the oxidation of the specimen when heated in air. ”

“ In the case of some bronzes, for example that with about 25% of tin, the solid solution is soft, and the complex into which it breaks up by slow cooling is much harder, so that the same process of heating and chilling which hardens steel will soften this bronze.
If we melt an alloy and chill it before it has wholly solidified, we often get evidence of the crystalline character of the solid matter which first forms. ”

“ It is necessary that the lens used for concentrating the light on the illuminator should be an achromatic one, as colour effects cause trouble in photographing the objects. For lower powers the Lieberkuhn parabolic illuminator is useful. Certain groups of alloys show better under oblique illumination, which may be effected by the aid of a good condensing lens, the angle of incidence being limited by the distance of the object from the objective in the case of high magnification. ”

“ When a current is passed through a solid alloy, a series of Peltier effects, proportional to the current, are set up between the particles of the different metals, and these create an opposing electromotive force which is indistinguishable experimentally from a resistance. If the alloy were a true chemical compound the counteracting electromotive force should not occur ”

“ Polishing in Bas-Relief.—If the polishing be completed with fine rouge on a sheet of wet parchment, placed upon a comparatively soft base such as a piece of deal, certain soft constituents of an alloy may often be eroded in such a manner as to leave the hardest portions in relief. ”

“ When a solution of silver nitrate is poured on to metallic mercury, the mercury replaces the silver in the solution, forming nitrate of mercury, and the silver is precipitated, it does not, however, appear as pure metallic silver, but in the form of crystalline needles of an alloy of silver and mercury. F. B. Mylius and O. Fromm have shown that alloys may be precipitated from dilute solutions by zinc, cadmium, tin, lead and copper. ”

“ The substance AuAl2 is the most remarkable compound of two metals that has so far been discovered; although it contains so much aluminium its melting-point is as high as that of gold. It also possesses a splendid purple colour, more remarkable than that of any other metal or alloy. Many other inter-metallic compounds have been indicated by summits in freezing-point curves. For example, the system sodium-mercury has a remarkable summit at the composition NaHg2. This compound melts at 350° C., a temperature far above the melting-point of either sodium or mercury. ”

“ A section through the culot so obtained will show a gradation in structure from pure metal on one side to pure metal on the other. A thin slice of metal is usually cut by means of a hack-saw driven by mechanism. ”

“ Manganese not only forms with iron several alloys of great interest, but alloyed with copper it is used for electrical purposes, as an alloy can thus be obtained with an electrical resistance that does not alter with change of temperature ”

“ Ee is a eutectic line, as also are E′e and E′′e. The alloy of the point e is the ternary eutectic; it deposits the three metals simultaneously during the whole period of its solidification and solidifies at a constant temperature. As the lines of the surface which correspond to Ee, &c., slope downwards to their common intersection it follows that the alloy e has the lowest freezing-point of any mixture of the three metals; this freezing-point is 96° C., and the alloy e contains about 32% of lead, 15·5% of tin and 52·5% of bismuth. ”

“ We thus learn that the bronzes referred to above, although chemically uniform when solid, are not so when they begin to solidify, but that the liquid deposits crystals richer in copper than itself, and therefore that the residual liquid becomes richer in tin. Consequently, as the final solid is uniform, the crystals formed at first must change in composition at a later stage. We learn also that solid solutions which exist at high temperatures often break up into two materials as they cool ”

“ We have here a comparatively simple case, as the metals do not form compounds. The solid alloy consists of crystals of pure tin in juxtaposition with crystals of almost pure lead and bismuth, these two metals dissolving each other in solid solution to the extent of a few per cent only. If now we cut the freezing-point surface by planes parallel to the base ABC we get curves giving us all the alloys whose freezing-point is the same ”

“ If a mixture of A and B be melted and then allowed to cool, a thermometer immersed in the mixture will indicate a gradually falling temperature. But when solidification commences, the thermometer will cease to fall, it may even rise slightly, and the temperature will remain almost constant for a short time. ”

“ The methods of manufacture of steel by cementation, case-hardening and the Harvey process are important operations which appear to depend on the diffusion of the carburetting material into the solid metal. ”

“ A nickel steel containing 36% of nickel has the property of retaining an almost constant volume when heated or cooled through a considerable range of temperature; it is therefore useful for the construction of pendulums and for measures of length. ”

“ The peculiarity of these steels is that no quenching or tempering is required. They are normally hard and remain so, even at a faint red heat; much deeper cuts can therefore be taken at a high speed without blunting the tool. ”