Robert J. Russell

“ Nevertheless, the characters separating Zygogeomys and Geomys are of considerable importance and I consider the two kinds to be distinct genera.
The species of Geomys, both living and extinct, form a distinct and well-marked group. The genus is less primitive in most respects than Zygogeomys and Orthogeomys and it is less specialized than Pappogeomys, excluding the ancestral stock (subgenus Pappogeomys) . Some specimens of species of Irvingtonian age (Geomys tobinensis and Geomys garbanii, especially the former) retain primitive enamel plates as does Zygogeomys ”

“ Judging from the structure of the living species of the subgenus Cratogeomys and from the primitive subgenus Pappogeomys, the subgenus Cratogeomys featured five major trends: (1) Increase in size; (2) formation of sagittal crest by union of the temporal impressions; (3) increase in rugosity and angularity of the skull; (4) progressive development of platycephalic specializations, including the elongation of the angular process of the mandible; (5) complete loss of enamel plates from the posterior wall of M1 and M2. Each trend is thought to be adaptive. ”

“ Pliogeomys is more primitive than any modern genus of the Geomyini, seems to have been a late survivor of the primitive stock, but was itself probably a collateral lineage and not on the direct line of descent. The cheek teeth in Pliogeomys are rooted and less hypsodont than in the late Pliocene examples of the modern genera, and the anterior enamel plate of the lower molars shows no indication of reduction, as would be expected if Pliogeomys were in the direct line of evolution. ”

“ The genus Pappogeomys is not known from Pleistocene deposits older than the Wisconsin glaciation, but a pre-Pleistocene occurrence in the Benson beds of Arizona (see discussion of the Pliocene above) shows that Pappogeomys had been differentiated by late Pliocene time. The absence of Pappogeomys, beginning in the early Pleistocene and continuing well into the late Pleistocene, is attributed to the southern distribution of the genus, where its range probably was centered on the Central Plateau of México. ”

“ Living species of Geomys rarely have a well defined outer re-entrant fold on M3; less than 10 per cent of the individuals (and usually only one side in each individual in which it occurs) have it, although a shallow inconspicuous groove occurs more frequently. The biprismatic molar characteristic of the ancestral morphotype is less often found in Geomys than in any other living member of the tribe Geomyini. The outer re-entrant fold and biprismatic pattern are more often present in the extinct species Geomys garbanii of the Middle Pleistocene than in other species. ”

“ Description and discussion.—Pocket gophers of this genus are medium-sized geomyids; none is so small as the average-sized Thomomys. The skull is generalized and lacks the dolichocephalic and platycephalic specializations seen in the genera Orthogeomys and Pappogeomys, respectively. Geomys closely resembles Zygogeomys, but retains fewer of the primitive characters of the ancestral stock. At the same time, Geomys has several specializations. Even so, a considerable amount of parallelism is evident in the phyletic trends of the two genera. ”

“ Therefore, platycephalic specializations involved lateral expansion of the braincase and mandible. Pronounced lateral expansion has been developed only in the gymnurus group of species, suggesting that the dental specializations evolved earlier in the evolution of the subgenus than did the platycephalic specializations of the skull, and that the castanops group separated from the gymnurus group before the common ancestor had developed the more extreme trends in platycephaly. ”

“ Other shapes [562] of M3 are considered to be specializations that have been derived from the primitive form. In addition to the primitive subtriangular pattern, the M3 of living Geomyini may be suborbicular, quadriform, elongate, or obcordate in shape. Usually each lineage is [563] characterized by only one pattern, but in one genus (Pappogeomys) all patterns occur. Of the different forms, the elongate and obcordate seem to be the most highly specialized deviations from the triangular-shaped tooth. ”

“ The functional significance of grooving has been debated on numerous occasions in the literature. Grooves appear in a number of only distantly related rodents and in lagomorphs. The grooving occurs always in small herbivorous mammals, and in some way may be related to feeding habits.
The grooves provide a serrated cutting edge on the occlusal edge of the upper incisor. In the genus Geomys, for example, the two incisors, including the slight space between them, present a total of five serrations, which may facilitate cutting and piercing tuberous and fibrous roots upon which Geomys feeds. ”

“ The Melbourne local fauna is considered to be from Wisconsin deposits by Kurten (op. cit.:220) . The eastern species of Geomys were probably derived from Great Plains stock that reached the southeastern Coastal Plains in early Rancholabrean (Illinoian) time. Presently there is no contact between the eastern and western populations of the genus, and it is assumed that disjunction occurred as a result of Wisconsin glaciation. It is interesting to note that the genus Thomomys occurred in this region at approximately the same time; both genera occur in Saber-tooth Cave deposits. ”

“ In the earliest known geomyids from the Upper Oligocene and Lower Miocene, the premolars and molars are biprismatic and bilophodont. In rodents, this is itself a specialized pattern, and is thought to have evolved from a more primitive sextituberculate prototype by the union of individual cusps, and probably also cuspules, forming the two transverse enamel lophs. The primitive, common ancestor of the Geomyidae and Heteromyidae with sextituberculate teeth in the early Tertiary is unknown. ”

“ M1 and M2 retaining enamel plate on anterior wall throughout life; M3 usually subtriangular in cross-section but sometimes suborbiculate or ovoid, crown slightly bilophodont owing to shallowness of labial re-entrant angle in modern species; posterior loph of M3 not especially elongated and crown not significantly longer than wide; both lateral enamel plates of M3 usually well developed and approximately equal in length, occasionally plates reduced in length and rarely one or both plates are lost with wear in old individuals; patch of whitish or buffy hairs surrounding nose of most individuals. ”

“ The dolichocephalic skull is highly specialized for planing, a grinding action of the teeth; whereas, the platycephalic skull is highly specialized for shearing, a slicing action of the teeth. Of course, concomitant specializations of the dentition, as described above, are closely associated with both specialized trends in the skull. Most kinds of living Geomyini have generalized skulls that show no tendency toward either of the specialized conditions.
Increase in size of body and skull is seen in most Pleistocene lineages of the Geomyini. ”

“ In animals with dolichocephalic skulls the principal movements of the mandible in the masticatory process are anteroposterior. The resulting propalinal action of enamel plates in opposition to each other characterizes also animals with a generalized skull, and evidently is the method of mastication in the primitive geomyines, but in animals with a dolichocephalic skull the method is developed to a high degree by elongation of the cranium, mandible, and teeth. ”

“ The Deep River Formation is late Hemingfordian (middle Miocene) in age. No remains of Dikkomys have been identified in the extensive rodent fauna of the John Day beds of the lower Miocene of Oregon, although entoptychines are abundant in these deposits.
In the present account, Dikkomys is regarded as the ancestor from which the Pliocene and modern geomyines were derived. These probably did not evolve from the subfamily Entoptychinae because the dentition of entoptychines, especially the premolars and third molars, was already highly specialized by Miocene time. ”

“ The living species does have a few unique characteristics, only to be expected in the surviving species of a long phyletic lineage. Some of these are specializations. Otherwise, Zygogeomys and Nerterogeomys are closely related and the latter is best placed as a synonym of the former. Both are admittedly closely related to Geomys. Zygogeomys and Geomys share several characters, particularly primitive ones; there is considerable parallelism, especially marked in Irvingtonian species of Geomys. ”

“ All of these primitive features are shared with Zygogeomys. In addition, three other trends, or specializations, in evolution characterize the phyletic development of Geomys. One major trend is toward loss of the enamel plate from the posterior wall of P4. No trace of enamel remains on the posterior wall of this tooth in late Pleistocene or Recent species of Geomys, and at least one of the earlier species (quinni) was also characterized by loss of this enamel plate. Secondly, M3 retains only a vestige of the primitive bicolumnar pattern after the initial stages of wear. ”

“ Geomys quinni was widespread and common throughout the central Great Plains from the late Pliocene (Rexroad fauna) through the early Pleistocene (Nebraskan and Aftonian deposits) .
Hibbard (1956:179) referred the pocket gopher remains taken from the Saunders local fauna in Meade County, Kansas, to Geomys tobinensis, a small species having continuous enamel bands around the lower premolar in younger specimens. The Saunders local fauna was deposited in the late Aftonian and is younger than the Deer Park local fauna discussed above. ”

“ Winge, first in 1887 and subsequently in 1924, classified the geomyids and heteromyids together in the family Saccomyidae as did Baird in 1858, and like Coues, Winge too ignored the synonymy of Saccomys with Heteromys and insisted on retaining the technical terms Saccomyidae and Saccomyini.
Up to the time of Merriam's classic revision of the Recent Geomyidae in 1895 all the known species of living pocket gophers were referred to two genera, Geomys and Thomomys. Merriam described [507] much new material, especially from México and Central America, and proposed seven new genera (see Table 1) . ”

“ Specimens of the extinct genera Dikkomys, Pliosaccomys, Pliogeomys, Nerterogeomys, and Parageomys also were studied, as were examples of the extinct species Geomys quinni, Geomys tobinensis, and Orthogeomys onerosus. Considerable fossil material of living species, especially of the genera Geomys and Pappogeomys, was used. ”

“ B Upper incisors smooth, occasionally with a fine indistinct groove near inner margin of tooth; form of third upper molar same as M1 and M2, monoprismatic, anteroposteriorly compressed, and having transverse enamel plates on both anterior and posterior faces, and without suggestion of either labial or lingual re-entrant folds; basitemporal fossa absent (except for a shallow depression in one Recent species, T. townsendii) ; forefoot small and narrow with claws not elongated for digging. ”

“ The southward and eastward shift of the Neotropical-tertiary flora, associated with the drying and chilling of the continent, began in the middle or late Oligocene and was concurrent with the divergence and radiation of the Entoptychinae. Beginning in late Oligocene and continuing at least into middle Miocene, most of the region in which the entoptychines occurred was occupied by the Arcto-tertiary geoflora of which the temperate forest division contributed the dominate plant associations. ”