Herbert Cushing Tolman

“ Only a few rising ruins remind us of the history of the former metropolis of the world. The topographical accounts of the Greek writers and of the Babylonian documents make it possible to reconstruct the plan of the town and bring its picture before our eyes.
In the description of Babylon which Herodotus furnishes, the accounts of the extent of the city are of special interest. "It is situated," says he, "in a great plain and is a quadrangle each side of which is 120 stades. The number of stades in the circumference of the town amount in all to 480." ”

“ The numerous canals, which once lessened the force of the yearly floods and distributed the waters of the Tigris and Euphrates in all directions, are to-day all but filled with sand. In the poor villages dwells a still poorer population, whose flocks graze on the sparsely growing grass. At the present time, since there are no canals to distribute the water during the overflow season, the land becomes, especially at the south, an immense swamp. Only the ruins rising out of the broad plains remind us of the brilliant past of that region. ”

“ Schliemann unearthed the treasures from the royal graves at Mycenae and gave the world the first glimpse of that ancient civilization which has since been shown to have extended over the mainland of Hellas and the isles of the south Aegean—a civilization whose type is the same, however widely distant the localities where remains are found, whether in Crete or Thessaly, in Rhodes or Argolis, in Cyprus or Boeotia. ”

“ According to Herodotus, the Median races, until the middle of the eighth century B. C., were subject to the Assyrians. After they had gained their independence the Median tribes, which were formerly separated, began to unite. The first chief of the united Medes was Deïoces (699–646) . To him Herodotus ascribes the building of Ecbatana. Dei'oces' son, Phraortes (646–624) , extended the empire, subdued the Persians and the neighboring tribes, and attacked the Assyrians who dwelt at Nineveh; but he fell in battle, with the loss of most of his army. His son, Cyaxares (624–584) , succeeded him. ”

“ A people very closely related to the Danaans were the Minyans, who were bearers of Mycenaean civilization and were the founders of Orchomenos, on Lake Copaïs. The influence of this race is seen not only in Boeotia, but also in Laconia, on the island of Thera, and at Thoricus in Attica. Heinrich suggests that the names Minyas and Minos show something more than an accidental similarity. In that case the remains of Mycenaean civilization which have been found, as we have seen, in such great abundance in Crete would bring that island into the circle of countries inhabited by the Minyans. ”

“ In the midst of the heap of ruins which to-day bears the name "Kasr" (fortress) are found limestone tablets with the inscription: " Great palace of Nebuchadrezar, king of Babylon, the son of Nabopolassar, king of Babylon, who increased the honor of the gods Nabû and Marduk, his lords." ”

“ The Mycenaean Age is a bronze age, and in a general way is similar to the bronze ages of Northern Europe. It offers many problems which have not yet been solved. Each year brings numerous and important discoveries. It is not our purpose to give even a superficial presentation of this civilization, but only to discuss its main characteristics, with reference to life as pictured in the Homeric poems. ”

“ But rather is the reverse true; the historical Semiramis forms the nucleus of the mythical narrative. Of course, as Duncker says, "the Assyrians served Ishtar-Belit, a female divinity, who was goddess of war as well as goddess of love." Ishtar, the goddess of the planet Venus, has a double character: as goddess of the morning star she is a war goddess, for the morning star calls men to activity and battle; as the evening star she is the goddess of sensual love, for the evening star invites men to rest. But we are not sure of any identity between Ishtar and the Assyrian goddess Derceto. ”

“ The Homeric Troy.⁠In consequence of the clear connection between the earlier parts of the Homeric poems and Mycenaean times, it must be admitted that of all the settlements on Hissarlik, only that one which shows that it has come in touch with Mycenaean civilization can lay claim to the title of Homeric Troy. Such a city was our fortress with its huge walls, towers, gates, and inner buildings—a city which before its destruction had at least commercial relations with the people bearing the civilization which has been briefly described. ”

“ Through further conquest the Median empire was so augmented that the Halys became the western boundary, while in the East all the regions possessed by the Aryan peoples as far as Persia became subject to Media. But that dynasty which had founded this mighty empire was soon destroyed. Herodotus correctly states that in the time of Cyaxares the Scythians invaded the kingdom of the Medes. "For twenty-eight years the Scythians ruled Asia, and every land was waste and desolate in consequence of their licentiousness and insolence. ”

“ If we assume that the civilization was foreign, then must the Greek hero-tales become unintelligible. When Homer speaks of Tiryns and Mycenae, "rich in gold" (γ, 305) , of Amyclae (Β, 584) , of Boeotian Orchomenos (Β, 511; λ, 284) ; when he mentions the tale of the Argonauts (μ, 79) ; when he brings Crete into touch with the royal house of Mycenae (Γ, 230; τ, 172) ; and when he has the blind bard Demodocus sing of the great events which occurred before the walls of Troy (θ, 44) , the poet undoubtedly refers to Mycenaean times. ”

“ The first part of the document discusses the defects of the reign of Nabû-na'id. These defects consist in the neglect of the daily sacrifice, the derogation of the honor of Merodach, the introduction of foreign gods into Babylon, and the oppression of the inhabitants. The inscription goes on to say that Merodach is implored for help; the god hears the prayer and looks for another, a righteous king; such a king he finds in Cyrus, the king of Anshan. To him Merodach gives the sovereignty over Babylonia and the Eastern lands, and finally allows him to enter Babylon in triumph. ”

“ A heap of ashes, partly buried under a house wall of the VII Stratum, was found in the center of the hall, and warrants the assumption that our building was a dwelling house. The upper walls were probably erected out of fine building stone, and their complete destruction may be due to the fact that they were utilized by the inhabitants of the VII Stratum as material for their houses. No traces of clay brick are to be found in this structure. The roof was probably horizontal, and built of earth resting upon a steep incline constructed of straw or similar material. ”

“ It was in this conquest that the great temple of Bel-Merodach (Esagila) was destroyed. From that time the decay of the town was rapid, yet when Herodotus visited Babylon a part of its old splendor must have still remained, for he begins his vivid description of the town with the words: "No other town which we know was so beautifully built." (I., 178.) When Alexander the Great had conquered Persia, he planned to make Babylon the metropolis of his broad empire, but he died, during its reconstruction, in the palace which was once Nebuchadrezar's. ”

“ Commenting on this, Leaf said: [31] "But we know for certain that the dwellers upon the hill of Hissarlik were at a completely different and altogether lower stage of civilization than the royal race of Mycenae. Scarcely half a dozen objects have been found which show a point of contact. If, therefore, Homer correctly describes the Achaeans, his Trojans are quite imaginary." Ludwich, although admitting that most Mycenaean finds are older than the Homeric age, yet declared them to show that the Iliad is no picture of the imagination, but rests upon a real foundation. ”

“ The statement of Herodotus that the "queen" contributed to the welfare of her subjects by the construction of dikes corresponds very closely to the picture of Semiramis in the cuneiform documents. A regent who displayed such energy and statesmanship must have lived long in the remembrance of the people. Later centuries not only attribute to this ruler many achievements whose authors were forgotten, but also surround her picture with a wreath of legends. Several of these Semiramis legends, as told by the Greeks, are hard to reconcile with the portrait of the Assyrian ruler. ”

“ The coast along the Aegean consists of a line of foot-hills, while the eastern boundary of the plain is formed by the spurs of the Ida chain. Between these ranges, in a spot especially favored by nature, sheltered as it is by hills and sea, is the valley of the Scamander (modern Mendere) , fertile and rich-soiled, where to-day is still to be recognized much of the Homeric flora. ”

“ If the "royal palace" mentioned by Herodotus can be thus identified with the complex structure erected by Nebuchadrezar and his predecessor, then the "temple of Zeus Belos" can be no other than the Nebo temple of Borsippa, which is called in the inscriptions Ezida. Next to Esagila, the temple of Pel-Merodach, Ezida of Borsippa was the greatest sanctuary of the land. It is with pride that the Babylonian and Assyrian kings, when they became lords of Babylon, called themselves "restorers" or "builders" of Esagila and Ezida. ”

“ This rich civilization seems to have received a sudden check on the mainland of Greece. There is no further development in artistic form or technique, such as we admire in the gold cups from Vaphio, the gold dagger-blades from Mycenae, and the characteristic pottery. ”

“ To-day the traffic on the Tigris is carried on by means of rafts consisting of inflated skins of sheep or goats. The Assyrian reliefs from Khorsabad show that this kind of raft has been in vogue for more than two thousand years. That the commerce of Babylon and Nineveh, before the time of Herodotus, possessed great significance is shown by several places in the Old Testament. Ezekiel (xvii. 4) calls Babylonia a land of traffic. Nahum (iii. 16) says of Nineveh: " Thy traders are more numerous than the stars of heaven." ”

“ To still another period belongs the East Wall, from the Gate VI T to the Tower VI g.
The poorest style of masonry is seen in the West Wall, which, with the exception of portions repaired at a later time, consists of small unwrought stones. In the East Wall the blocks are larger and better hewn, while the best form of masonry appears in the South Wall and in the towers, where the great stones are cut into rectangular blocks and closely fitted. ”