Herbert Cushing Tolman

“ But rather is the reverse true; the historical Semiramis forms the nucleus of the mythical narrative. Of course, as Duncker says, "the Assyrians served Ishtar-Belit, a female divinity, who was goddess of war as well as goddess of love." Ishtar, the goddess of the planet Venus, has a double character: as goddess of the morning star she is a war goddess, for the morning star calls men to activity and battle; as the evening star she is the goddess of sensual love, for the evening star invites men to rest. But we are not sure of any identity between Ishtar and the Assyrian goddess Derceto. ”

“ It was in this conquest that the great temple of Bel-Merodach (Esagila) was destroyed. From that time the decay of the town was rapid, yet when Herodotus visited Babylon a part of its old splendor must have still remained, for he begins his vivid description of the town with the words: "No other town which we know was so beautifully built." (I., 178.) When Alexander the Great had conquered Persia, he planned to make Babylon the metropolis of his broad empire, but he died, during its reconstruction, in the palace which was once Nebuchadrezar's. ”

“ According to Herodotus, the Median races, until the middle of the eighth century B. C., were subject to the Assyrians. After they had gained their independence the Median tribes, which were formerly separated, began to unite. The first chief of the united Medes was Deïoces (699–646) . To him Herodotus ascribes the building of Ecbatana. Dei'oces' son, Phraortes (646–624) , extended the empire, subdued the Persians and the neighboring tribes, and attacked the Assyrians who dwelt at Nineveh; but he fell in battle, with the loss of most of his army. His son, Cyaxares (624–584) , succeeded him. ”

“ The first part of the document discusses the defects of the reign of Nabû-na'id. These defects consist in the neglect of the daily sacrifice, the derogation of the honor of Merodach, the introduction of foreign gods into Babylon, and the oppression of the inhabitants. The inscription goes on to say that Merodach is implored for help; the god hears the prayer and looks for another, a righteous king; such a king he finds in Cyrus, the king of Anshan. To him Merodach gives the sovereignty over Babylonia and the Eastern lands, and finally allows him to enter Babylon in triumph. ”

“ If the "royal palace" mentioned by Herodotus can be thus identified with the complex structure erected by Nebuchadrezar and his predecessor, then the "temple of Zeus Belos" can be no other than the Nebo temple of Borsippa, which is called in the inscriptions Ezida. Next to Esagila, the temple of Pel-Merodach, Ezida of Borsippa was the greatest sanctuary of the land. It is with pride that the Babylonian and Assyrian kings, when they became lords of Babylon, called themselves "restorers" or "builders" of Esagila and Ezida. ”

“ In the midst of the heap of ruins which to-day bears the name "Kasr" (fortress) are found limestone tablets with the inscription: " Great palace of Nebuchadrezar, king of Babylon, the son of Nabopolassar, king of Babylon, who increased the honor of the gods Nabû and Marduk, his lords." ”

“ The statement of Herodotus that the "queen" contributed to the welfare of her subjects by the construction of dikes corresponds very closely to the picture of Semiramis in the cuneiform documents. A regent who displayed such energy and statesmanship must have lived long in the remembrance of the people. Later centuries not only attribute to this ruler many achievements whose authors were forgotten, but also surround her picture with a wreath of legends. Several of these Semiramis legends, as told by the Greeks, are hard to reconcile with the portrait of the Assyrian ruler. ”

“ To-day the traffic on the Tigris is carried on by means of rafts consisting of inflated skins of sheep or goats. The Assyrian reliefs from Khorsabad show that this kind of raft has been in vogue for more than two thousand years. That the commerce of Babylon and Nineveh, before the time of Herodotus, possessed great significance is shown by several places in the Old Testament. Ezekiel (xvii. 4) calls Babylonia a land of traffic. Nahum (iii. 16) says of Nineveh: " Thy traders are more numerous than the stars of heaven." ”

“ Herodotus, in his history, treats the question of the Medes and Persians quite exhaustively, but his accounts of the Assyro-Babylonian history are meager. He makes references to an intended work [1] on Assyrian history, which is now lost, if indeed it ever existed. Herodotus had visited Western Asia, especially Babylonia; [2] but since he must have been incapable of using the native documents of the Babylonians, he was compelled to rely on vouchers, who, it appears, were of Persian descent.
The Greek Writings in the Light of Assyriology. ”

“ Presumably the Jews had given strong expression to their joy over the fall of Babylon.
Cambyses was as tolerant as Cyrus toward the prominent religions of the Persian empire. The annals of Nabû-na'id (rev. III., 25) state that Cambyses, immediately after the taking of Babylon by Cyrus, entered the temple Ê-šapa-kalama-summu. On the other hand Herodotus gives us a statement in regard to Cambyses which does not seem consistent with this liberality, for he attributes the killing of the Apis bull to the wrath of Cambyses at the joy which he supposed the Egyptians felt over his defeat. ”

“ The numerous canals, which once lessened the force of the yearly floods and distributed the waters of the Tigris and Euphrates in all directions, are to-day all but filled with sand. In the poor villages dwells a still poorer population, whose flocks graze on the sparsely growing grass. At the present time, since there are no canals to distribute the water during the overflow season, the land becomes, especially at the south, an immense swamp. Only the ruins rising out of the broad plains remind us of the brilliant past of that region. ”

“ Herodotus represents the motive which actuated the Persian king to seize Babylon as desire for conquest. (I., 178.) According to his account, the Babylonians put forth their strongest efforts to repulse the Persian king. From the cuneiform inscriptions, however, we get the impression that the Babylonians, or at least a great part of them, hailed the advent of Cyrus with joy. This is most plainly declared in the so-called Cyrus cylinder. This inscription, it is generally supposed, was compiled at the command of Cyrus by a priest of Merodach, the tutelary god of Babylon. ”

“ The Medes must have made strong resistance to the Scythians more than once. [23] Cyaxares attacked the Assyrian empire when it was shaken by the inroad of these Scythians. The Medes appeared before the gates of Nineveh and conquered the town. It may be true that the Babylonians, whose king, Nabopolassar, had procured for his son the hand of the daughter of the Median king, aided the Medes in this siege. Berossus mentions this, but Herodotus does not. Herodotus correctly states that Cyaxares conquered Nineveh, while Berossus and his excerptists refer this conquest to Astyages. ”

“ The word Manda (umman-manda) > which several scholars consider the later name of "the Medes of every race," [12] designates those warlike hordes—e. g., the Cimmerians and the Scythians— which, after the time of Esar-haddon, forced their way from the north into the Assyrian and Median countries. Originally Madâ (Mada-a) was the designation among the Assyrians for a particular Median tribe, as were the names, Ellipi, Ḫarhar Ḫubuškia, Patušarra, Partakka, etc.
In descent the Medes did not belong to the Semitic race. That an Aryan population dwelt formerly in Media is also without proof. ”

“ The manner of shipbuilding seemed strange to Herodotus. The ships were made out of woven willow twigs, covered with skins. "In every boat," says Herodotus, "is a living ass, and in the greater ones more. After the traders have arrived at Babylon and sold their cargo, they immediately offer the ribs and reeds of their boat for sale, pack the skins on the ass, and go back to Armenia." (I., 194.) The swift current of the Euphrates made such shipbuilding especially advantageous. Layard found in a palace at Nimrud representations of boats which correspond to the description of Herodotus. ”

“ This continual resistance to foreign intrusion may have contributed to a closer union of the scattered tribes. The Median tradition about the heroic battles for freedom would of course sound entirely different from the Assyrian accounts of the same. If Herodotus derived his statements about Assyrian history chiefly from Medo-Persian sources, we can understand why he puts the beginning of Median independence in the second half of the eighth century, although that period represents nothing but a series of struggles for independence which were finally crowned with success. ”

“ The several Egyptian documents, however, make the account of Herodotus exceedingly improbable. From an Egyptian inscription, preserved in the Vatican, we learn that Cambyses, after the conquest of Egypt, performed those religious duties which devolved upon him as the successor of the Pharaohs. He was initiated into the mysteries of the goddess Neith, and brought the holy offering to Osiris in the inner room of the temple. At his command the temple of Neith, in Sais, which had been seized by the soldiers, was purified and restored to its sacred use. ”