Alfred Russel Wallace

“ Darwin has shown by actual experiment that almost all such earth contains seeds. Thus in nine grains of earth on the leg of a woodcock a seed of the toad-rush was found which germinated; while a wounded red-legged partridge had a ball of earth weighing six and a half ounces adhering to its leg, and from this earth Mr. Darwin raised no less than eighty-two separate plants of about five distinct species. ”

“ If we add to this the dependence of so many insects on local conditions of climate and vegetation, and their liability to be destroyed by insectivorous birds, we shall see that, although there may be a greater probability of insects as a whole reaching the islands, the chance against any particular species arriving there, or against the same species arriving frequently, is much greater than in the case of birds. ”

“ The result is, that (as compared with Britain for example) the birds are, proportionately, much more numerous than the beetles, while the peculiar species of beetles are much more numerous than among birds, both facts being quite in accordance with what we know of the habits of the two groups. We may also remark, that the small size and obscure characters of many of the beetles renders it probable that species now supposed to be peculiar, really inhabit some parts of Europe or North Africa. ”

“ With these exceptions, most of the peculiar Azorean species are closely allied to European plants, and are in several cases little more than varieties of them. While therefore we may believe that the larger part of the existing flora reached the islands since the glacial epoch, a portion of it may be more ancient, as there is no doubt that a majority of the species could withstand some lowering of temperature; while in such a warm latitude and surrounded with sea, there would always be many sunny and sheltered spots in which even tender plants might flourish. ”

“ We have thus about one-fifth of the land-shells peculiar, while almost all the other productions of the islands are identical with those of the adjacent continent and islands. This corresponds, however, with what occurs generally in islands at some distance from continents. In the Azores only one land-bird is peculiar out of eighteen resident species; the beetles show about one-eighth of the probably non-introduced species as peculiar; the plants about one-twentieth; while the land-shells have about half the species peculiar. ”

“ This is due, first, to the small area and little varied surface of these islands, as well as to their limited flora and small supply of insects not affording conditions suitable for the residence of many species all the year round; and, secondly, to the peculiarity of the climate of North America, which causes a much larger number of its birds to be migratory than in Europe. The Northern United States and Canada, with a sunny climate, luxuriant vegetation, and abundant insect-life during the summer, supply food and shelter to an immense number of insectivorous and frugivorous birds ”

“ Insects of the Azores.—Having thus found no difficulty in accounting for the peculiarities presented by the birds of these islands, we have only to see how far the same general principles will apply to the insects and land-shells. The butterflies, moths, and hymenoptera, are few in number, and almost all seem to be common European species, whose presence is explained by the same causes as those which have introduced the birds. Beetles, however, are more numerous, and have been better studied, and these present some features of interest. ”

“ It is no doubt in consequence of this repeated immigration that none of the Bermuda birds have acquired any special peculiarity constituting even a distinct variety; for the few species that are resident and breed in the islands are continually crossed by individual immigrants of the same species from the mainland. ”

“ Concluding Remarks.—The two groups of islands we have now been considering furnish us with some most instructive facts as to the power of many groups of organisms to pass over from 700 to 900 miles of open sea. There is no doubt whatever that all the indigenous species have thus reached these islands, and in many cases the process may be seen going on from year to year. We find that, as regards birds, migratory habits and the liability to be caught by violent storms are the conditions which determine the island-population. In both islands the land-birds are almost exclusively migrants ”

“ Let us now see what animals are believed to have reached the group by natural means, and thus constitute its indigenous fauna. These consist of birds, insects, and land-shells, each of which must be considered separately.
Birds.—Fifty-three species of birds have been observed at the Azores, but the larger proportion (thirty-one) are either aquatic or waders—birds of great powers of flight, whose presence in the remotest islands is by no means remarkable. ”

“ Now we can hardly have a greater difference of conditions than between the continent of Europe or North Africa, and a group of rocky islands in mid-Atlantic, situated in the full course of the Gulf Stream and with an excessively mild though stormy climate. We have every reason to believe that special modifications would soon become established in any animals completely isolated under such conditions. ”

“ Birds.—Notwithstanding its small size, low altitude and remote position, a great number of birds visit Bermuda annually, some in large numbers, others only as accidental stragglers. Altogether, over 180 species have been recorded, rather more than half being wading and swimming birds, whose presence is not so much to be wondered at as they are great wanderers; while about eighty-five are land birds, many of which would hardly be supposed capable of flying so great a distance. Of the 180 species, however, about thirty have only been seen once, and a great many more are very rare ”

“ Every spring and autumn, therefore a vast multitude of birds, belonging to more than a hundred distinct species, migrate northward or southward in Eastern America. A large proportion of these pass along the Atlantic coast, and it has been observed that many of them fly some distance out to sea, passing straight across bays from headland to headland by the shortest route. ”

“ On the other hand, flying creatures, as birds and insects, are abundant; and there is also one flying mammal—a small European bat. It is true that rabbits, weasels, rats and mice, and a small lizard peculiar to Madeira and Teneriffe, are now found wild in the Azores, but there is good reason to believe that these have all been introduced by human agency. The same may be said of the gold-fish and eels now found in some of the lakes, there being not a single fresh-water fish which is truly indigenous to the islands. ”

“ Moseley, who visited Bermuda in the Challenger, has well explained the probable origin of the vegetation. The large number of West Indian plants is no doubt due to the Gulf Stream and constant surface drift of warm water in this direction, while others have been brought by the annual cyclones which sweep over the intervening ocean. The great number of American migratory birds, including large flocks of the American golden plover, with ducks and other aquatic species, no doubt occasionally bring seeds, either in the mud attached to their feet or in their stomachs. ”

“ Birds as Seed-carriers.—The great variety of fruits that are eaten by birds afford a means of plant-dispersal in the fact that seeds often pass through the bodies of birds in a state well-fitted for germination; and such seeds may occasionally be carried long distances by this means. Of the twenty-two land-birds found in the Azores, half are, more or less, fruit-eaters, and these may have been the means of introducing many plants into the islands.
Birds also frequently have small portions of earth on their feet ”

“ We find also, that these great distances do not prevent the immigration of some insects of most of the orders, and especially of a considerable number and variety of beetles; while even land-shells are fairly represented in both islands, the large proportion of peculiar species clearly indicating that, as we might expect, individuals of this group of organisms arrive only at long and irregular intervals.
Plants are represented by a considerable variety of orders and genera, most of which show some special adaptation for dispersal by wind or water, or through the medium of birds ”

“ But insects are also immensely more numerous in species than are land-birds, and their transmission would be in most cases quite involuntary, and not dependent on their own powers of flight as with birds ”

“ Of these two groups twenty are residents, breeding in the islands, while eleven are stragglers only visiting the islands occasionally, and all are common European species. The land-birds, twenty-two in number, are more interesting, four only being stragglers, while eighteen are permanent residents. The following is a list of these resident land-birds:—
All the above-named birds are common in Europe and North Africa except three—the Atlantic chaffinch and the canary which inhabit Madeira and the Canary Islands, and the Azorean bullfinch, which is peculiar to the islands we are considering. ”

“ Darwin, and many other writers, who have made it sufficiently clear that they are in many cases liable to be carried enormous distances. An immense number are specially adapted to be carried by the wind, through the possession of down or hairs, or membranous wings or processes; while others are so minute, and produced in such profusion, that it is difficult to place a limit to the distance they might be carried by gales of wind or hurricanes. Another class of somewhat heavier seeds or dry fruits are capable of being exposed for a long time to sea-water without injury. ”

“ Position and Physical Features—Chief Zoological Features of the Azores—Birds—Origin of the Azorean Bird Fauna—Insects of the Azores—Land-Shells of the Azores—The Flora of the Azores—The Dispersal of Seeds—Birds as Seed-Carriers—Facilities for Dispersal of Azorean Plants—Important Deduction from the Peculiarities of the Azorean Fauna and Flora. ”

“ The Dispersal of Seeds.—The seeds of plants are liable to be dispersed by a greater variety of agents than any other organisms, while their tenacity of life, under varying conditions of heat and cold, drought and moisture, is also exceptionally great. They have also an advantage, in that the great majority of flowering plants have the sexes united in the same individual, so that a single seed in a state fit to germinate may easily stock a whole island. The dispersal of seeds has been studied by Sir Joseph Hooker, Mr. ”

“ The two Elateridæ alone exhibit remote affinities, the one with a Brazilian the other with a Madagascar group; while the only peculiar genera belong to the Rhyncophora, but are allied to European forms. These last almost certainly form a portion of the more ancient fauna of the islands which migrated to them in pre-glacial times, while the Brazilian elater appears to be the solitary example of a living insect brought by the Gulf Stream to these remote shores. ”

“ These comprise nineteen beetles, eleven bees and wasps, twenty-six butterflies and moths, nine flies, and the same number of Hemiptera, Orthoptera, and Neuroptera respectively. All appear to be common North American or West Indian species; but until some competent entomological collector visits the islands it is impossible to say whether there are or are not any peculiar species. [109]
Land Mollusca.—The land-shells of the Bermudas are somewhat more interesting, as they appear to be the only group of animals except reptiles in which there are any peculiar species. ”

“ The red earth contains a good many fragments of magnetite, augite, felspar, and glassy fragments, and when a large quantity of the rock of Bermuda is dissolved away with acid, a small number of fragments are also met with. ”

“ As these causes are either constantly in action or recur annually, it is not surprising that almost all the species should be unchanged owing to the frequent intercrossing of freshly-arrived specimens. ”

“ Jones tells us, the sportsman enjoys more shooting than at any other time. The violent revolving gales, which occur almost weekly, bring numbers of birds of many species from the American continent, the different members of the duck tribe forming no inconsiderable portion of the whole ”

“ Jones suggests, be carried up by local whirlwinds to a great height, where meeting with a westerly or north-westerly gale, they are rapidly driven sea-ward. The great majority no doubt perish, but some reach the Bermudas and form one of its most striking autumnal features. ”

“ In our third chapter we have seen how great is the amount of individual variation in birds, and how readily local varieties become established wherever the physical conditions are sufficiently distinct. ”

“ It will be seen that these are all very common North American birds, and most of them are constant visitors from the mainland, so that however long they may have inhabited the islands there has been no chance for them to have acquired any distinctive characters owing to the want of isolation. ”