Carlos De Zafra

“ The writer maintains that immediately upon impact the metal in a shell assumes a state of physical unrest, due to stresses similar to those in a propeller shaft when in motion, except that in the former case the intensity of the compression stresses greatly exceed those in the latter. Because a shell is only 31⁄2 calibres in length is no criterion that the same stresses do not exist there as would exist in the theoretical projectile considered of twenty calibres, or one of even more exaggerated proportions—there would be merely a difference in the intensity of these stresses. ”

“ In the United States services soft steel is used for the purpose. Authorities disagree as to the exact function which the cap plays, some claiming it to act as a lubricating metal facilitating the passage of the projectile, others claim that it gives an initial shock to the armor-plate before the shell proper has struck it, which latter then strikes the plate in a state of molecular unrest, and, therefore, of impaired resisting power. ”

“ The most obvious way to eliminate that wearing away of the bearing surface was to increase it, in doing which the escape of gas past the projectile would be greatly checked, and the gas pressure behind the projectile increased (exerting, thereby, a greater propelling force) and imparting to the projectile greater velocity, increased momentum, and consequent increased penetration. But an increase in the bearing surface of the shot necessitated an alteration in its shape introducing difficulties affecting the accuracy of its passage through the air. ”

“ Also, with a flaw in a finished projectile, and lying in a spiral direction the result of the compression stresses would be to jump across the flaw or to decrease the gap instead of acting wedgelike along the flaw causing it to open as before mentioned. Finally, an increase in integrity means an increase in penetrability, or in the percentage of complete penetration, with the ultimate necessity of increasing the thickness of armor-plate to successfully exclude the improved armor-piercing shell. ”

“ The twist or rotary motion is imparted to the projectile by means of the "rifling" in the bore. Fig. 26 shows the cross-section of an 8-inch gun with the dimensions of the rifling, which is composed of two elements, the "groove" or spiral cut made in the bore and the "land" or space between two adjacent grooves. To take these grooves "rotating bands" of soft metal, generally copper, are fitted to the projectile as will be explained under "Manufacture of Projectiles." ”

“ From the above table it will be noted that the R.P.M. are exceedingly high in some cases. Upon the impact of a shell with armor-plate the physical phenomena occur instantaneously and the resultant forces are so great that it is impossible to mechanically record their action. A study of the stresses in the shell can, however, be made on a theoretical basis. ”

“ The nickel-steel protective-deck plate shall be manufactured by the open-hearth process and shall contain about 31⁄4 per cent of nickel, not more than six one-hundredths of one per cent of phosphorous; not more than four one-hundredths of one per cent of sulphur, shall be the best composition in all respects. ”

“ The energy imparted to it at the muzzle amounts to 6,408-foot tons assuring a penetration at the muzzle of 33.8 inches of steel, or at 3,500 yards of 27.5 inches, the muzzle velocity being 1,975-foot-seconds and powder charge 640 pounds of smokeless. The maximum pressure in the powder chamber allowed is 37,000 pounds per square inch.
Briefly the modern gun is a built-up piece, constructed by fitting or shrinking super-imposed hoops or cylinders one over the other in size and number as diagramatically explained in Fig. 25, sufficient to re-inforce the bore to withstand the varied pressures. ”

“ Figures 23 and 24 represent cast iron shot "of very peculiar shape, intended apparently, as a substitute for the rifle groove. They were cylinders of about four inches diameter, with a flattened spherical head from which three spiral openings communicate with the open interior of the cylinder. The cylindrical part was formed with grooves...."
The Modern Type of Gun
From these earliest examples the development of artillery has been gradual until the present day of the built-up gun with an energy and range undreamed of in the earlier days. ”