John Paul Stevens

“ A rule of law that is the product of judicial interpretation of a vague, ambiguous, or incomplete statutory provision is no less binding than a rule that is based on the plain meaning of a statute. The violation of a federal right that has been found to be implicit in a statute's language and structure is as much a "direct violation" of a right as is the violation of a right that is clearly set forth in the text of the statute.
The Machinists rule is not designed-as is the Garmon rule-to answer the question whether state or federal regulations should apply to certain conduct. ”

“ The rights protected against state interference, moreover, are not limited to those explicitly set forth in § 7 as protected against private interference. "The NLRA . . . has long been understood to protect a range of conduct against state but not private interference." ”

“ Rather, the statutory framework must be such that " [a] llowing a plaintiff" to bring a § 1983 action "would be inconsistent with Congress' carefully tailored scheme." Smith, 468 U.S., at 1012, 104 S.Ct., at 3468. The burden to demonstrate that Congress has expressly withdrawn the remedy is on the defendant. See Wright, 479 U.S., at 423, 107 S.Ct., at 770; National Sea Clammers, 453 U.S., at 21, n. 31, 101 S.Ct., at 2626, n. 31. " 'We do not lightly conclude that Congress intended to preclude reliance on § 1983 as a remedy' for the deprivation of a federally secured right." ”

“ Roanoke Redevelopment and Housing Authority, 479 U.S. 418, 107 S.Ct. 766, 93 L.Ed.2d 781 (1987) , the interest in being free of governmental regulation of the "peaceful methods of putting economic pressure upon one another," Machinists, 427 U.S., at 154, 96 S.Ct., at 2560, is a right specifically conferred on employers and employees by the NLRA. [9] Of course, Congress has the authority to retract the statutorily conferred liberty at will, just as the State in Wright and Thiboutot could relieve itself of federal obligations by declining federal funds. Cf. Guardians Assn. ”

“ New York Dept. of Labor, 440 U.S. 519, 552, 99 S.Ct. 1328, 1347, 59 L.Ed.2d 553 (1979) (Powell, J., dissenting) ("What Congress left unregulated is as important as the regulations that it imposed. It sought to leave labor and management essentially free to bargain for an agreement to govern their relationship") . And, contrary to the city's contention, " ' [r] esort to economic weapons should more peaceful measures not avail' is the right of the employer as well as the employee." Machinists v. ”