John Wesley Powell

“ We have seen how in motility the internal motions of the body are converted into external motions by deforming the body itself. By motility as expressed in locomotion, the animal body can change the relation of its parts, and thus of the whole body in relation to external parts, while all such changes of relation are in obedience to mind. The animal body, therefore, can move itself in relation to external bodies in a limited manner, and can thus impinge upon them and coöperate with external bodies at will. ”

“ All of this differentiation of labor upon which the highest civilization depends illustrates in the most forcible manner the nature of coöperation, for society itself is organized upon the theory of coöperating activities.
In these activities men not only coöperate with one another, but they individually and collectively coöperate with nature, and thus external nature is made to assist man. ”

“ Thus we make a distinction between vitality as a method of molecular motion and motility as a method of organic motion directed by opposing or correlative muscles, motility being thus directed by contraction and relaxation, which results in all forms of locomotion. ”

“ If all of this reasoning is valid, affinity is molecular choice in the animate body, and we may hence conclude that all affinity is molecular choice, as it seems to be, for chemists who do not ignore affinity never find any other way of rendering the facts into language. So that affinity is practically synonymous with selection. I will to cross the street, I will to walk, I will to set the organs of walking in motion, and I accomplish it by controlling the affinities of molecules in metabolism. ”

“ In the coöperation of animal with animal, societies are organized. These societies are highly developed and best illustrated in human life. Men, through activities, coöperate with other men. We thus have a vast assemblage of coöperations, but in these activities the man must necessarily coöperate with plants, rocks, orbs, and ether as well as with other men. ”

“ The brain seems to be the organ of mentation, but there are ganglia in the different mechanical organs which take a subordinate part in the general system of mentation in locally controlling motility by exciting or inhibiting activity. It is not necessary that the brain should deal with every muscle, but only with general ideas of action, while the ganglia control the details of activity, for there is a hierarchy of authorities which ramify to every cell particle in the system. Thus the brain has the means of inciting metabolism in every particle of the body. ”

“ The organs of sense sending their judgments by the sensory nerves from the exterior, the organ of feeling from the interior, and we are compelled to infer that every particle of matter in the animate body has judgment; and that in the organs of sense they have judgments of cognition, but in the mechanical organs they have judgments of good and evil. ”

“ In molecular bodies motions are correlated in a manner yet unknown, but molecules are known to have interior motions exhibited in response to motions in the ether as its particles impinge on ponderable matter. The correlated structural motions of the molecule may be transmuted by collision with ethereal particles and be converted into heat—a mode of motion—so that which is structural motion will appear as heat, and if the transmutation is carried to a sufficient degree the structure of a molecular body will be destroyed, for by heat molecules are reduced to lower molecules or to atoms. ”

“ The orbs of the solar system coöperate with one another in producing the solar system itself as a body, and they coöperate with one another through the medium of the ether in radiant causation as reciprocal cause and effect. ”

“ The vegetal forces coöperate with terrestrial forces in the disintegration of rocks into soils, in which function they also coöperate with chemism, gravity, and ethereal force. Thus coöperation in the vegetal realm extends throughout the universe.
In the zoönomic realm all other forces of nature coöperate with the forces of animal life to accomplish motility. That the organism itself is a system of coöperating powers in which the function of every organ is necessary to the continuance of the function of the others is commonplace doctrine. ”

“ Hence we may conjecture that in the molecule the rhythms of the particles become the structure of the molecule when these rhythms are systematic. There is much in the phenomena of motion which suggests that such is the case. In a previous chapter a brief statement was made to exhibit the universality of rhythm. That structural motion is always systematic vibration seems worthy of acceptation as a working hypothesis. The form of force known as energy may appear in another phase as a succession of distinct forces impinging upon a single body producing effects which remain with that body. ”

“ In the animal body functional coöperation becomes still more efficient by more thorough specialization, when multiple like organs of like functions are eradicated.
In animal life the body is moved by the differentiated movements of its component parts. The body as a particle moves by impact from external influences in the higher incorporation of the earth, but it also moves as an individual by the differentiation of its own internal movements ideally determined. ”

“ The lens is but an improvement to the eye, and the telescope is but an improved lens, and the microscope still another improved lens. There would be no end to the illustrations which could be cited to show the manner in which the arts of man coöperate with one another and with man himself. ”

“ There are also muscles for the movement of the limbs, all adapted to locomotion. Then there are muscles necessary for the reproductive functions and finally there are muscles for the movement of organs of sense. All of the motions thus indicated in a summary manner are the result of the forces which we call motility to distinguish it from vitality, which is molecular force. Motility is controlled by metabolism, and is the metabolism of opposing muscles where one contracts and the other relaxes. ”

“ Something more than motion is manifested by the ether.
Light is the expression of ether as number and kind in the colors. Magnetism is the expression of space and form in position and direction. Heat is the expression of motion as force. Gravity is the expression of time as causation. Electricity is the expression of affinity as electrolysis. ”

“ The activities in which men engage are all designed to accomplish purposes, and in order that these ends may be reached, man invents by minute increments sundry agencies by which they may more adequately be reached. In order that we may understand this subject, consider the purposes to be accomplished. By a careful examination of all human activities and the purposes directly subserved, it will be found that they are naturally grouped in five classes. First, man pursues pleasure, and those things which give him pleasure are sought. ”

“ First we note that metabolism consists of two correlative systems, one of anabolism, the other of catabolism; that is, the one builds up, the other tears down. They are not only correlative, but to a large extent they are contemporaneous. In fact, there can be no building up without tearing down; that is, no placement which is not displacement, except that material may be stored adjacent to organs as fatty substances, to be used as needed after it has thus been stored. ”

“ Third, for pleasure and welfare man has found it well to associate, and to promote these associations he finds it necessary to regulate conduct. He therefore naturally pursues justice, and that gives rise to institutions which are constitutive, legislative, executive, operative, and judicative. ”

“ Thus it is that man invents languages which are emotional, gestural, oral, written, and technical. Fifth; but man in the pursuit of pleasure, welfare, justice and expression discovers that he makes many mistakes, and that pain, misery, injustice and misunderstanding are secured instead of the desired ends. ”

“ Therefore these are the agencies for the increase and diffusion of knowledge, observation, acculturation, education, publication and research; for this diffusion it becomes necessary to teach and to learn; so research and instruction appear and become pursuits of life for wisdom. ”

“ It is a process by which gravity deflects the stars into revolutions and it must always be a process by which particles are deflected while they are incorporated in bodies. A multitude of processes appearing in inorganic nature have already been exhibited, while processes which appear in the vegetal realm were noted.
In nature processes are developed into modes of force known as powers. The meteor falls upon the earth and acts as a hammer. Boulders are carried by streams and act as hammers and produce effects as such which the particles acting separately could not produce. ”

“ Second, man naturally pursues welfare in length of life and abundance of health, and seeks to avoid disease and death. By these are produced those activities which are called industries. Under industries we have to consider kind, form, force, history and purpose. ”

“ The club is but an instrument to coöperate with the hand to increase its efficiency. The flail is but a club with a handle for increased efficiency. The thresher is but a group of clubs placed upon a cylinder and made to revolve to increase efficiency. The snow-shoe is but an addition to the foot to increase its efficiency. ”

“ This resolution is accomplished by measurement, and different formulae are employed which in mathematical science are called the equations of acceleration, force, impulse, energy and power. They are all devices for reducing force to motion and motion to number. ”

“ Thus collisions which might result simply in deflection if the particles acted severally, produce fracture when they act conjointly. Particles may produce pressure when they act separately, but when they act conjointly pressures may lead to rupture. By the device of the lever forces are multiplied in effect without increase or diminution of force as such ”