William Swainson

“ From the earliest ages, the Butterfly appears to have attracted the admiration of mankind; and we find it celebrated by their poets as figurative of gaiety and pleasure, and by their sages as an emblem of the human soul. ”

“ The Shells of this genus are composed of such of the Linnæan Nerits as are umbilicated, from which latter they essentially differ, both in the organization of the animal and the construction of the shell, which is either closed by a shelly or horny operculum.
The species are numerous, and are found both in temperate and tropical seas; two or three inhabit our own coasts, but by far the greater number are found in the Asiatic Ocean. They are subject to variation in their colour; and this, joined with a general resemblance in form, has rendered the discrimination of the species very difficult. ”

“ It will appear, therefore, more natural to consider Halcyon and Dacelo as one genus—which may be called by either name, but which must be distinguished by the characters herein given to Halcyon, inasmuch as the generic definition of Dacelo (founded on one bird) will be found too restricted to comprehend all.
Total length ten inches; bill two and a half from the gape, and one and a half from the nostrils; the tip of the upper mandible with a slight inclination downwards, and with an appearance of a notch; the whole head, neck, and under plumage, of a delicate fawn colour ”

“ Cramer, pl. 301. D.
It is in all things better to understand few subjects well than many imperfectly; knowledge may be extensive, but it cannot be sound, if it is at the same time imperfect; and, applying this observation to the present article, it becomes as desirable, where necessary, to illustrate an insect known to Linnæus, as to regard only the accession of new species. ”

“ Leach, and there can be no doubt they are the sexes of one species. The upper is a male, and agrees with Drury's figure and description; the lower insect is a female, of which no representation has been published: as for Cramer's figure, if intended for the former, it is really so bad that it can hardly be quoted as an authority, and it appears to have misled Fabricius, in thinking that the female insect had a brown stripe on the anterior wings, whereas that character is more applicable to the male. ”

“ In form it approaches nearest to Conus vitulinus of Bruguiere, having the spire not quite depressed, each volution being slightly raised above the last, gradually to the apex; the upper margin of the body whorl is convex: each volution of the spire has a broad and deep groove nearest the upper edge, which thus becomes elevated, while the convexity of the lower part of the whorl forms a channel round the suture, which separates it from the next; this formation of the spire is very remarkable, and unlike what I have seen in any other Cone. ”

“ I am unacquainted with the other varieties of this species mentioned by authors. Of the bird here described, I have never seen any variety, either in Brazil or in our museums. The young males, as usual before moulting, have the colours of the female; one of them, in an intermediate state, is in my possession. As both the figures are of the size of life, and accurately coloured, a fuller description is unnecessary. The rich sky-blue of the male, in some lights, becomes greenish, and in others dark blue. ”

“ It is a rare species, and peculiar to New Holland.
Length nine inches, with the tail, which is near four inches and a half; the upper part of the plumage olive green, not so bright as is usual in this tribe; the front of the head is a most brilliant turcosine blue, which spreads on the cheeks, nearly to the ears, and then mixes with the green; the shoulders and lesser wing covers of the same colour, graduating to a deep mazarine blue on the greater covers, spurious wings, and quill feathers, which latter are all deep black beneath, as well as on their interior shafts ”

“ A few species of Ovula, however, bear a strong resemblance to the genus, but may be known from not having teeth on each side the mouth. The Cowries are without exception the most beautiful of all shells, whether the richness and harmony of their colours, or the exquisite polish of their exterior, is considered; but (like many other things of more consequence) their beauty is depreciated by their frequency. The indefatigable Lamarck has described sixty-six species, only one of which inhabits the European seas. ”

“ Dubois' cabinet. The shell is heavy; the body whorl contracted at the upper part, where the margin is sharply carinated; the spire much depressed and concave; each volution is also concave, and has from three to four fine grooves, which occupy its full extent, and which appear minutely granulated; but this is only caused by the longitudinal lines of growth: the tip of the spire acute; the base is wider in circumference than usual, with a gibbous belt marked by elevated striæ, in other respects the shell is smooth ”

“ The female has the head blackish, the feathers tipt with dull white; the ears darker; the plumage above more olive, the spots brighter, and the bands on the body grey, paler, and more indistinct than in the male. The feet in both sexes are greenish, and the wings three inches and a half long. ”

“ I see no reason why the original name of Linnæus for this shell should have been changed, although, under it, he has evidently included other species quite distinct; (his var. β being C. ebræus) : indeed, it too often happens, that in making those alterations absolutely necessary in the present state of the science, the spirit of innovation oversteps the justice due to those, whose labours first laid the foundation of our own knowledge. ”

“ A species evidently unknown to Lamarck; the upper margin of each whorl is thick and projecting; the striæ on the body whorl are nearly obsolete, but on the spire become deep, remote, and having internally minute hollow dots; the inner margin of the exterior lip is strongly crenated, the aperture smooth, and the pillar with five strong teeth. ”

“ Few birds require more illustration than this very beautiful though common species; described by most ornithological writers, but hitherto so little understood, that the two sexes stand as distinct species in a family of birds to which they have, in reality, no natural affinity. According to the Linnæan system it should have been rather placed with the Creepers than the Warblers; an error which has been continued by every subsequent writer, even by Professor Temminck, whose skilful and accurate perception of natural affinities is, in general, so remarkably correct. ”

“ The different generic names which have been given to these birds by modern systematic writers, require some elucidation. They were originally placed by Linnæus among the Certhiæ; out of this genus Illiger formed another by the name of Nectarinia, in which he included not only these birds, but many others allied to them. From this genus of Illiger's, Cuvier separated a part under the generic appellation of Cinnyris, a genus which comprised those species of Illiger's Nectarinia only which are found in the parallels of latitude of the old world. ”

“ Bill thin, short, very much depressed, broader than the front of the head; the upper mandible abruptly hooked and notched at the tip; the margins dilated, and folding over those of the under mandible; nostrils central, the base covered with a membrane having minute feathers, the aperture small, round, terminal, and nearly naked; mouth large, armed above with stiff bristles; feet sitting, slender; lateral toes unequal, exterior united to the middle as far as the first joint; hinder claw strongest. ”

“ Shell ovate-oblong, thick, convex, anterior obliquely rounded; hinge margin slightly curved and thickened beneath the umbones; inside fulvous, with a reddish margin.
The shells now arranged under the kindred genera of Unio and Anodon are exclusively fluviatile, or inhabitants of fresh water, and are dispersed both in the old and the new world. In the Linnæan system, the first, being furnished with teeth, are placed among the Myæ; and the latter, from having none, are arranged with the Mytili. Two common shells, in our own rivers and ponds (Mya pictorum, and Mytilus anatinus Lin.) ”

“ The common Shell above quoted, inhabiting many of our rivers, will serve as an excellent example of this genus, which is not numerous, and confined to fresh waters; the animals, inhabiting the European species, appear to have been thoroughly investigated by the continental naturalists; and from their account of its singular construction, the above description has been framed. Science should make no distinction of persons or countries ”

“ The beautiful little Butterflies included by Fabricius in this genus, are scattered over all parts of the world, but are most numerous within the tropics, and particularly in South America, for in Brazil alone I collected near 120 species. They are an obvious and very natural family, though the species are as yet but little understood, and not one half of them described. ”

“ At such times the disproportionate size of the head is rendered more conspicuous by the bird raising its feathers so as to appear not unlike a puff ball; hence the general name they have received from the English residents in Brazil; of which vast country all the species, I believe, are natives. ”

“ So few of those insects, generally called Butterflies, were known to Linnæus, that he included them all in one genus, dividing them, for the most part, into natural groups. Fabricius continued this arrangement, with little variation, and has left us the description of near 1,150 species! Yet before his death, this laborious naturalist saw the absolute necessity of dividing this immense genus into many others, and left among his MSS. a sketch of his proposed arrangement, published afterwards by Illiger, and partially adopted (we venture to think also very imperfectly) by M. Latreille. ”

“ Latham, differing in having the plumage on the under part of the body pale ferruginous, or buff colour, instead of white, as in the specimens he described from Cayenne; mine are from Southern Brazil, where the species is not uncommon.
This genus includes the American species of the Linnæan Barbuts; the birds connecting this group with the cuckows are arranged by Vieillot in a separate genus, named by him Monassa; which I think should be retained, as it is of much importance to designate strongly connecting links between families apparently very opposite. ”

“ The difference between this and the common black Californian Ear, consists in its being a much deeper and smoother shell, always narrowest at the base, the outer lip not having (as in that) a prominent curve or gibbosity where it joins the spire; but principally in the perforations, which in this are always half as large, and doubly numerous; it is also generally a much smaller, and less common species: the spire is always deeply tinged with pink. ”

“ They frequent open cultivated spots near habitations, always perching on the withered branches of a low tree; where they will sit nearly motionless for hours, unless, indeed, they descry some luckless insect passing near them, at which they immediately dart, returning again to the identical twig they had just left, and which they will sometimes frequent for months. ”

“ Our figure is the size of life; on each side the breast is a tuft of yellow feathers; the back, neck, and head shining golden green, changing in various lights. The female is said to be the Certhia Capensis of Lin., which is greyish brown above, and paler beneath. ”

“ It will be found that Licinia is the connecting genus between those of Danais and Pieris, of Latreille, and that the transition between the last of these and Colias is strongly marked by that of Terias, (Zool. Ill. pl. 22) .
What with the inaccuracy of figures, and the almost universal neglect with which the most eminent entomologists have passed over this beautiful order, the natural arrangement and affinities of the Lepidoptera still remain in the greatest obscurity ”

“ This is a very beautiful, and, at the same time, very rare shell; it formerly belonged to Mrs. Angus, at whose sale it passed into the cabinet of Mr. Dubois. Its general appearance resembles very much that of C. Maldivus Lam. known to our collectors by the name of the Spanish Admiral: the spire will, however, at once distinguish it; each volution is strongly concave in the middle, in which part are two or three delicate indented lines, very near each other, and following the volutions; the suture also is sufficiently open to be termed channelled ”

“ Science would, indeed, receive incalculable and lasting benefit, if those of our conchologists who reside near the coast would pay greater attention to the inhabiting animals, and less to the shells, of their neighbourhood ”

“ Its general habit evinces a close connexion with the Sittæ, particularly those of New Holland; some of which have their bills (which are slender) slightly inclining upwards, thus forming a connexion between Xenops and the straight billed Sittæ of the old world.
The figure is of the male, and its natural size; the head dark brown with pale spots; the back of a reddish tinge, and the rump and tail rufous; tail much rounded, and of twelve feathers; the three outer and the two pair in the middle entirely rufous, the other pair having the inner shafts black; the greater quills black ”

“ This I have termed the hinge margin. The form of the notch or sinus which terminates this part will also be found of much importance in discriminating the species; for no shells vary more in their form, thickness, or convexity than these do, according to their locality, age, or other circumstances.
Shell transverse, oval; rather thick and ventricose; both extremities obtuse; the anterior side (from the umbones to the exterior margin) obliquely rounded; umbones prominent; hinge margin rather thick, slightly curved, and swelled immediately under the umbones; sinus short, abrupt, curved ”