active 6th century B.C. Sunzi

“ QUALITIES OF THE GENERAL
Wu the Master said:—
“The leader of the army is one who is master of both arms and letters. He who is both brave and tender can be entrusted with troops.
“In the popular estimation of generals, courage alone is regarded; nevertheless, courage is but one of the qualifications of the leader. Courage is heedless in encounter; and rash encounter, which is ignorant of the consequences, cannot be called good. ”

“ Nevertheless, over-care for the soldiers may cause disobedience; over-attention may make them unserviceable; over-indulgence may produce disorder: they become like spoilt children, and cannot be used.
He who is confident of his own men, but is ignorant that the enemy should not be attacked, has no certainty of victory.
He who knows that the enemy may be attacked with advantage, but knows not his own men, has no certainty of victory.
Confidence in the troops, right judgment when to attack the enemy, but ignorance of the ground, bring uncertain victory. ”

“ An advance of the light chariots to the flanks of the camp is a sign that the enemy is coming forth to fight.
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Without consultation, suddenly to desire an armistice, is a mark of ulterior design.
The passing to and fro of messengers, and the forming up of troops, show that the enemy has some movement on foot.
An advance, followed by sudden retirement, is a lure to attack.
When the enemy use their weapons to rest upon, they are hungry.
If the drawers of water drink at the river, the enemy is suffering from thirst.
Disregard of booty that lies ready at hand is a sign of exhaustion. ”

“ But, even if victorious, let the operations long continue, and the soldiers’ ardour decreases, the weapons become worn, and, if a siege be undertaken, strength disappears.
Again, if the war last long, the country’s means do not suffice. Then, when the soldiers are worn out, weapons blunted, strength gone and funds spent, neighbouring princes arise and attack that weakened country. At such a time the wisest man cannot mend the matter.
For, while quick accomplishment has been known to give the victory to the unskilful, the skilful general has never gained advantage from lengthy operations. ”

“ The prevention of tyranny and the restoration of order is just; to strike in reliance on numbers is oppression; to raise the standard for reasons of anger is a war of revenge; to quit propriety, and seize advantage is tyranny; when the state is disordered and the people worn out, to harbour designs, and set a multitude in motion, is a war of unrighteousness. ”

“ If we retreat and the enemy pursue, but pretend not to be able to overtake us, see an advantage but pretend not to be aware of it, then their general may be called a wise general, and conflict with him must be avoided. If their army be full of uproar; their banners and standards disordered, their soldiers going about or remaining of their own accord, some in line, others in column; if such an enemy be eager to pursue, and see an advantage which they are desperate to seize, then their general is a fool: even if there be a host, they may be taken. ”

“ He who does not know the evils of war will not reap advantage thereby. He who is skilful in war does not make a second levy, does not load his supply waggons thrice.
War material and arms we obtain from home, but food sufficient for the army’s needs can be taken from the enemy.
The cost of supplying the army in distant fields is the chief drain on the resources of a state: if the war be distant, the citizens are impoverished.
In the neighbourhood of an army prices are high, and so the money of the soldiers and followers is used up. ”

“ To oppose confusion with order, clamour with quiet, is to have the heart under control.
To await an enemy from a distance, to oppose hunger with satiety, rest with fatigue, is the way to husband strength. ”

“ In the management of armies, if the art of the Nine Changes be understood, a knowledge of the Five Advantages is of no avail.
The wise man considers well both advantage and disadvantage. He sees a way out of adversity, and on the day of victory to danger is not blind.
In reducing an enemy to submission, inflict all possible damage upon him; make him undertake useless adventures; also make neighbouring rulers move as you would desire them by tempting them with gain. ”

“ If the forces be plunged into danger, there is survival; from death ground there is retrieval; for the force in danger gains the victory.
Discover the enemy’s intentions by conforming to his movements. When these are discovered, then, with one stroke, the general may be killed, even though he be one hundred leagues distant.
When war is declared, close the barriers; destroy passports; prevent the passage of the enemy’s spies; conduct the business of the government with vigilance.
Take immediate advantage of the enemy’s weakness; discover what he most values, and plan to seize it. ”

“ Do not make war unless victory may be gained thereby; if there be prospect of victory, move; if there be no prospect, do not move.
For passion may change to gladness, anger passes away; but a country, once overturned, cannot be restored; the dead cannot be brought to life.
Wherefore it is written, the enlightened lord is circumspect, and the good general takes heed; then is the state secure, and the army victorious in battle. ”

“ This is to fill the soldiers with distrust.
If the army be perplexed and distrustful, then dangers from neighbouring princes arise. The army is confounded, and offered up to the enemy.
There are five occasions when victory can be foretold:—
When the general knows the time to fight and when not to fight; or understands when to employ large or small numbers; when government and people are of one mind; when the state is prepared, and chooses the enemy’s unguarded moment for attack; when the general possesses ability, and is not interfered with by his prince. ”

“ The causes of defeat come from within; victory is born in the enemy’s camp.
Skilful soldiers make defeat impossible, and further render the enemy incapable of victory.
But, as it is written, the conditions necessary for victory may be present, but they cannot always be obtained.
If victory be unattainable, we stand on the defensive; if victory be sure, we attack.
Deficiency compels defence; super-abundance permits attack. ”

“ The business of the general is to avoid encounter in battle until the enemy is no longer capable of offering a successful resistance.
The masters do not make, however, the mistake of advocating a passive defensive. Suntzu lays down that the division of the forces which this strategy involves, is to be everywhere weak, rendering the army liable to be taken in detail by the concentrated forces of the enemy. It is rather the defence which avoids battle by mobility and manœuvre, induces the enemy by stratagem to divide his forces, or act in conformity with our wishes, and then falls upon him. ”

“ To fight and conquer one hundred times is not the perfection of attainment, for the supreme art is to subdue the enemy without fighting.
Wherefore the most skilful warrior outwits the enemy by superior stratagem; the next in merit prevents the enemy from uniting his forces; next to him is he who engages the enemy’s army ”

“ If their general be stupid, and heedlessly trustful, he may be enticed by fraud; if he be avaricious and careless of his fame, he may be bribed with gifts. If he make unconsidered movements without plan, he should be tired out and placed in difficulties. If the superiors be wealthy and proud, and the inferiors avaricious and resentful, they should be set against each other. An enemy that is undetermined, now advancing and then retreating, whose soldiers have nought wherein to put their trust, should be alarmed, and put to flight. ”

“ In the government of a country and [Pg 80] command of an army, the inculcation of propriety, stimulation of righteousness, and the promotion of a sense of shame are required.
When men possess a sense of shame, they will attack with resolution when in strength, and when few in number defend to the last.
But while victory is easy in attack, it is difficult in defence.
Now, of the fighting races below heaven; those who gained five victories have been worn out; those who have won four victories have been impoverished; three victories have given dominion; two victories have founded a kingdom ”

“ Wu remarks that “few are those who have gained power on earth by many victories,” and he is insistent that war should not be undertaken until a careful comparison of the two sides shows that victory is certain; and he adds, “The army which conquers makes certain of victory and then attacks, while the army that is defeated fights in the hope of success.”
Hence the importance they assign to intelligence of the enemy, and to the spy; and as the sages dealt with war between members of the same race, the work of spies was greatly facilitated. ”

“ If we go where the enemy is not, we may go a thousand leagues without exhaustion.
If we attack those positions which the enemy has not defended, we invariably take them: but on the defence we must be strong, even where we are not likely to be attacked. ”

“ The many large rivers of China naturally affected military operations; and, among other axioms, it is laid down that the passage of a river should not be disputed, as the enemy will probably give up the attempt, and make the passage untouched at some other point, but that he should be attacked when half his force is across the stream. Again, an army should not encamp on a river below the enemy, as it is thereby liable to be inundated, or to have its water poisoned; or the enemy may come down stream and make a sudden attack. ”

“ Sixth, when night falls, and the way is yet far; when officers and men are worn out and fearful, weary and without food, and have laid aside their armour and are resting.
“Seventh, when the general’s authority is weak, the officials false, and the soldiers unsettled; when their army has been alarmed, and no help is forthcoming.
“Eighth, when the battle formation is not yet fixed, or camp pitched; when climbing a hill, or passing through a difficult place; when half is hidden and half exposed.
“An enemy in these situations may be smitten without hesitation. ”

“ When all are united, the strong are not left to go forward alone, the cowardly are not free to retreat unrestricted. In this way can a multitude be used.
Therefore in night fighting, beacons and drums are largely used; in day fighting, a great number of banners and flags and the enemy’s eyes and ears are confounded.
We thus awe his army, and defeat his general’s ambition.
In the morning the spirits are keen; at midday there is a laziness; in the evening a desire to return. Wherefore, he who uses his soldiers well, avoids the time when the spirits are keen ”

“ The good general is like unto one sitting in [Pg 97] a leaking ship, or lying under a burning roof; the wisest man cannot contrive against him; the strongest man cannot destroy his composure; and the enemy’s onslaught can be withstood. For procrastination is the greatest enemy of the general; disasters to the army are born of indecision.”
Wu the Master said:—
“Men meet their death from lack of ability or unskilfulness. Wherefore training is the first requirement of war. One man with a knowledge of war can teach ten; ten men skilled in war can teach one hundred ”

“ If I were asked how a powerful and united force of the enemy should be met, I would say: lay hands on what the enemy cherishes and he will conform to our desires.
In war, above all, speed sustains the spirit of the troops. Strike before the enemy is ready; and attack his unpreparedness from an unexpected quarter.
With regard to war in foreign lands. When strangers in a far country the soldiers are united and are proof against defeat. Plunder fertile plains so that the army is [Pg 61] fed; be careful of the health of the soldiers; do not tire them uselessly; unite their minds; store up strength ”

“ On enclosed ground, use stratagem.
On death ground, fight.
The skilful fighters of old were at pains to disconnect the enemy’s front and rear; they cut asunder small and large forces of the enemy; prevented mutual help between his officers and men; spread mistrust between high and low. They scattered the enemy, and prevented him from concentrating; if his soldiers were assembled, they were without unity.
If there be a chance of victory, move; if there be no chance of success, stand fast. ”

“ In ancient times, Prince Huan of Chi assembled 50,000 men at arms, and became chief among the princes; Prince Wen of Chin put 40,000 mighty men in the van, and gained his ambition; Prince Mu of Chin gathered together 30,000 invincibles, and subdued his neighbouring foes. Wherefore, the princes of powerful states must consider their people, and assemble the valiant and spirited men by companies.
“Those who delight to attack, and to display their valour and fealty should be formed in companies. ”

“ In general, the method of fighting is to effect order in daylight by means of flags and banners, pennons and batons; at night by gongs and drums, whistles and flutes. If a signal be made to the left, the troops move to the left; if to the right, they move to the right. Advance is made at the sound of the drum; halt at the sound of the gong; one blast of the whistle is for advance, two for the rally. If those who disobey be cut down, the forces are subject to authority. If officers and soldiers carry out orders, a [Pg 109] superior enemy cannot exist ”