Map

“ The modern map, well and thoroughly made, records faithfully every fact concerning the surface of the earth now known to man, and there is very little about it that scholarly geographers do not now know. In addition to the modern map’s accuracy, it is as much more attractive than its forebears to the eye as the beautiful color pictures now used in textbooks are seen to be when compared with the muddy wood cuts that appeared in schoolbooks a century or more ago. ”

“ THE idea of representing the surface of the earth, or even a part of it, by a map, implies a considerable advance in knowledge. Every map, even the crudest one, is in a certain sense a concentrated representation, a kind of distillation of physical and politico-geographical knowledge. ”

“ MAP, a representation, on a plane and a reduced scale, of part or the whole of the earth’s surface. If specially designed to meet the requirements of seamen it is called a chart, if on an exceptionally large scale a plan. The words map and chart are derived from mappa and charta, the former being the Latin for napkin or cloth, the latter for papyrus or parchment. Maps were thus named after the material upon which they were drawn or painted, and it should be noted that even at present maps intended for use in the open air, by cyclists, military men and others, are frequently printed on cloth. ”

“ There is an immense difference between this and a drawing from a relief map, or from a photograph of one. In this map the delineator expresses at first hand his own concept of the continental structure, as the artist or poet expresses in his work his own original ideas. We feel his thought in the very quality of line used. ”

“ As a work of art, graphically delineating the configuration of a district of surpassing beauty and variety of scenery, it will, perhaps, possess greater interest to the ordinary observer than any scientific value of accuracy and completeness could give it. If a person were called upon to construct an ideal map which should group together specimens of all types of topographical form and the conventional signs known to the draughtsman, he could hardly derive from his imagination a chart more comprehensive than this. ”

“ The conventional patterns used on a map to distinguish separate areas, chiefly geologic, are shown in Plate VIII. The patterns shown represent the proper combinations of lines, dots, and other forms and should be spaced openly or closely according to the size of the area covered, the contrast needed between areas, and the general clearness and effect desired. If a map is to show both small and large areas dense or closely spaced patterns should generally be used for the smaller areas, even if they may be required for some fairly large areas representing the same formation or condition. ”

“ Such is the conception of an accurate map which is an attempt to produce on a plain surface or sheet of paper, a horizontal projection of objects on the ground, which will show the relative positions of every detail on any desired scale with as little distortion as possible, and on which distances may be measured in any direction, and areas computed with a degree of accuracy only limited by the scale. ”

“ We read how the truths have appealed to his own consciousness. It stands where the relief map itself stands, as representing the delineator’s own mental image of such structure.
There are no lines drawn in this map that contradict or confuse the meaning; all is direct, truthful and clear in statement of fact. Each line has its own particular meaning. If represents direction. Applied to land surface, a vertical line means a perpendicular mountain or side wall of plateau, horizontal lines indicate level areas, and oblique lines a sloping surface. ”

“ Each of the three distances of each of the three compartments should be made to show the objects conspicuous to the eye from the summit of the Rigi, and those, too, which though not conspicuous, are yet of sufficient interest to be worthy of notice. With such a map before you, you would almost be able to construct, and put together, the view for yourself. He alone understands a scene, who has in his mind distinct images of all its parts, and of the relation of each to its environment. ”

“ A particular map is a part of a general one, and may be made upon the same principles, as by projecting a large hemisphere, and taking so much of it as the map is designed to contain. When we are to delineate a map of the smaller part of the earth, if it be near the equator, the meridians and parallels may be represented by equi-distant straight lines ”

“ The habit of locating the events recorded, of tracing upon the map the route of an army, or the line of an important road or canal, and observing the impediments or natural obstructions to be overcome, with the great advantages to be derived therefrom, together with inferences as to the time and labor required, has the effect of making the study of history of living interest, especially if the map used indicates such surface structure. ”

“ A little instruction in the elements of chartography—a little practice in the use of the compass and the spirit level, a topographical map of the town common, an excursion with a road map—would have given me a fat round earth in place of my paper ghost; ”

“ Study a good map—a quadrangle of the U. S. Geological Survey, for instance. Note what things are represented, and how representation is made: study the map, until it is thoroughly understood.
There are three factors with which the map-maker deals: direction, distance, and elevation. With the first, he must always reckon, and usually with the second and the third as well.
Direction is fundamental. Suppose there are three dominant points in the area to be mapped, relatively situated as here indicated. ”

“ After a little practice in map reading one becomes proficient and he will be able if in unsurveyed territory to make his own map. Get the compass directions from the camp of every prominent landmark with particular attention to streams and the ridges separating them. If one is out exploring it is a good idea to climb to the summit of some bare faced promontory and there study the topography of the country:—the location of the lakes, swamps, whither the streams run, the number and direction of the ridges, etc. ”

“ Anyone who attempts to draw a base map must, first of all, know how each feature or part of the map should be represented. Most of the conventional symbols for features shown on base maps are well established and should invariably be used; for instance, a line composed of alternate long and short dashes (not dashes and dots) represents a county boundary, and a line or two parallel lines across which short lines are drawn at regular intervals represents a railroad. ”

“ If a map is being used on the ground, the first thing to be done is to put the lines of the map parallel to the real outlines of the ground forms, and roads, fences, railroads, etc., that the map shows; for the making of a map is no more than the drawing on paper of lines parallel to and proportional in length to real directions and distances on the ground. ”

“ If the surface of the map is everywhere equally valuable it is clear that an arrangement by which errors of scale are larger towards the pole than towards the equator is unsound, and it is to be noted that in the case quoted the great bulk of the land is in the north of the map. ”

“ He noted all the little streams, the names of villages, the hill features, and so on; and at night he drew on his route map, with the greatest care, the journey of the day, and all the data that may be recorded on a map. Geographers still examine with great interest these neat and methodical map sheets. But they did not know, till years after Junker had returned home, that he had achieved, as we shall see, one of the most remarkable geographical feats on record. ”

“ A finished map border is used or omitted according to the kind of map prepared. Diagrammatic maps and maps on which no parallels and meridians appear do not need finished borders. On a map that shows complete areal geologic or other coloring, such as a map in a Survey geologic folio, the border lines tend to destroy the simple effect of the whole map. On a map that is not completely colored and on all very large maps borders are really necessary. ”

“ Geographers, when they make maps, seem to start with the notion that there must be a certain number of islands, &c. inserted in each map; and when they have located the larger and more important ones within fifteen or twenty degrees of latitude and longitude of their proper places, which is as near as they commonly come to the truth, they proceed to distribute the remainder according to their own taste. ”

“ What the ideal geographer, as cartographer, first of all tries to do is to devise a notation by which he and his fellow-geographers, by the inspection of a map of a given region, may get a simultaneous vision of the terrestrial phenomena which all the explorers and observers of that region have collectively seen. Now it must always be that however minutely observed and explored a region—even the most inhabited—may be, there is always something new to be observed, even in the shape and configuration of the surface, for these are always changing ”

“ The cultural features represented on a map include "the works of man"—not only cities, towns, buildings, bridges, railroads, and other roads, but State, county, and other boundary lines—in short, all that part of a three-color base map which is shown in black, the engraved plate for the black being called the culture plate. ”

“ The construction of a map virtually resolves itself into the drawing of two sets of lines, one set to represent meridians, the other to represent parallels. These being drawn, the filling in of the outlines of countries presents no difficulty. The first and most natural idea that occurs to one as to the manner of drawing the circles of latitude and longitude is to draw them according to the laws of perspective. Perhaps the next idea which would occur would be to derive the meridians and parallels in some other simple geometrical way. ”

“ The lines should preferably run across the long axis of an area, not parallel to it, and the predominating trend or general direction of the areas of one geologic formation on a map should decide the direction of the lines for all areas of that formation on the same map, even if the rule must be violated on some of the minor areas.
An effort should always be made to produce a pattern that is subordinate in strength to the main lines of the base map on which it is drawn. In black and white maps, as in colored maps, unlike patterns should be placed next to each other. ”

“ Such maps cannot be read by the inexperienced man, but he can develop the power so that a contour map will seem to be a picture of mountains and valleys and of hills and dales. Experience has taught me that this power is more easily gained and greatly assisted by representing relief in one color and drainage in another, as in blue; for when the knowledge that water is blue is represented in the map as blue, it will carry the streams down and aid in the perception of the relief. ”

“ The word map calls to our mind a picture of lines, angles, dots and circles which tell us something about a position of the surface of the earth. It gives us an idea of distance and direction, indicates heights and sometimes tells of interesting land conditions. What we see are but symbols representing a more or less true picture. ”

“ In the case of general maps on a smaller scale, the orographic features must be generalized by a skilful draughtsman and artist. One of the best modern examples of this kind is Vogel’s map of Germany, on a scale of 1 : 500,000.
Selection of Names and Orthography.—The nomenclature or “lettering” of maps is a subject deserving special attention. ”

“ From Eggischhorn to Rieder Alp. From Rieder Alp to Bell Alp. From Bell Alp to Brieg.
If you want more details than our map supplies, procure the sections for the district of General Dufour’s map. It is a map which is almost a picture. It gives the contour of every mountain and valley, and indicates every châlet.
Everything with which we have to do has, or ought to have, its science. So therefore it is, or ought to be, with enjoyment. Anticipation in this science counts for something. The brute only it is who goes straight to the main point first, and at once. ”

“ Much the same may be said of the dikes of cooled magma which have been injected along preëxisting fractures.
The base of the geological map.—Modern topographic maps form an important part of the library of the serious student of physiography; they are the gazetteer of this branch of science. Every civilized nation has to-day either completed a topographic atlas of its territory, or it is vigorously prosecuting a survey to furnish maps which represent the relief with some detail, and publishing the results in the form of an atlas of quadrangles. ”

“ I have a hazy remembrance of the distances and directions on the map, and, though it will take longer to hunt out the valley this way, I think we can do it. I can't forgive myself for my carelessness! I should have kept a copy of the map, or given one of you folks one. ”

“ They can be made to represent anything that any map can, though their special province is the exhibition of general facts where minute details are negligible. In fact, the encumbering of a large map with a multitude of names and other data is the cardinal sin of the cartographer. The two broad classes of facts put upon maps are political and physical, and almost always in combination, as neither one has very much meaning without the other. ”

“ She will remember that the mere placing of the maps before the pupil is not enough, that they will be as unmeaning to him as the flat political map, unless he has already in mind the primary concepts acquired through observation of surface forms, and has made his inference as to cause from the effects seen. ”