Grenville A. J. Cole

“ As a matter of fact, a gneiss may exist in which there is no differentiation into layers; the whole of the constituents have been drawn out and elongated, any mica present becoming naturally conspicuous by its - 156 - flattened wisp-like forms. The banded gneisses, on the other hand, where layer-structure is obvious, consist in reality of bands of different rock-types. Sometimes all the layers are granitoid, but one band will contain only quartz and felspar, while another will contain the same minerals with an admixture, and perhaps a great predominance, of mica. ”

“ The intimate structure of modern dolomitic limestone, as exhibited in coral-reefs, satisfies us that many older or fossil dolomites were formed from marine calcareous deposits while these were still accumulating. In other cases we must admit that the dolomite has developed in the neighbourhood of joints after the consolidation of the rock. The view that dolomitisation results from the mere removal of calcium, the magnesium originally present in organic skeletons becoming thus more concentrated, is not borne out by recent observations. ”

“ Swiss glaciers are now so limited that they are of very little use to us when we seek to explain the origin of boulder-clay. In arctic and antarctic lands, however, we meet with continental glaciers, many miles in width, moving across lowlands, in virtue of the pressure from some great snow-dome, to which additions are continually being made behind them. Even when fed by diminished snow-fields, like those in Spitsbergen, these glaciers dominate the landscape and form the principal rock-masses over hundreds of - 100 - square miles. ”

“ At a time when a powerful school regarded basalt as of sedimentary origin, and when granite was generally believed to be the most ancient component of the crust, rock-masses were taken in hand as aggregates of certain minerals, and were reduced to an orderly scheme for arrangement in the cabinets of the curious. Any system based on ideal relationships would have been fatal at that time to petrology as a science. ”

“ Rocks, we have to remember, are in themselves considerable masses, and have relations with others far away. The coarseness of a sandstone at one point, or even over square miles of country, implies the deposition of finer material somewhere else. The lava-flow implies the existence of mysterious cauldrons in the crust. It is, however, fortunate that the primary classification of rocks was promulgated without regard for theories of rock-origins. The work was done by men who were masters and pioneers in mineralogy. ”

“ When the quartz grains, however, are large, as in the grits quaintly styled in old days "greywacke," they form a ready clue to the origin of the rock.
Nature sifts the products of decay so thoroughly, on any slope exposed to wind or rain, that the finest materials are carried far away, and the undecomposable quartz remains predominant. The alluvium in the upper reaches of streams is thus far more sandy than the mixed material supplied at the outset from the surrounding rocks. The more rapid flow of the water on the steeper upland slopes naturally removes the mud into the lowland. ”

“ Seeing that some rocks are merely massive minerals, that is, large masses formed of one mineral species, while others consist of crystals or fragments of a variety of minerals, it may be well to remind ourselves of the distinction between minerals and rocks. We may define a mineral as a natural substance formed by inorganic action; its chemical composition is constant ”

“ The absence of soil and the smoothness of weathered surfaces render quartzite mountains hard to climb. The uniform cementing of the rock leaves the bedding with little influence on the surface-features, and rock-ledges and shelves are rare. The traveller ascends over taluses of angular and obstinate blocks towards slippery and inhospitable domes. But the wildness of the scenery will be his sure reward. ”

“ Granite, with its broad tabular jointing, which is often developed parallel to a surface of cooling, forms rounded slopes and domes after long-continued weathering. When reared high into the zone of frost-action, it develops spires and pinnacles, as in the huge "aiguilles" of Mont Blanc. But, as decay goes on, the uniform descent of boulders and sand forms spreading taluses, banked against the lower slopes, while the curving joints, not too closely set, promote a smoothness on the higher lands. ”

“ There seems no such thing in nature as amorphous carbonate of lime, and all limestones are therefore formed of crystalline particles; but the further crystallisation of this material produces a true marble, in which all traces of fossils may be lost. Heat and pressure underground probably facilitate this change, since even soft chalk is converted by igneous dykes into granular marble. But where the pressure is accompanied by the possibility of movement, the shearing action breaks down the grains, and a more delicate structure results. ”

“ Attention has been already called to the composite gneisses formed by the intrusion of an igneous magma between the leaves, as it were, of sediments. Such occurrences are often seen on the margins of batholites or of any kind of igneous dome, and they no doubt represent the picking off of layer after layer from the walls surrounding the intrusive mass. If these layers can become absorbed into the igneous rock, the crest of the dome can advance, and the dome itself can widen, so long as sufficient heat is supplied to it from below. ”

“ The flint gravels that cover much of the upland in the New Forest may also be borne in mind, as presenting the worst features of highly siliceous lands.
In a semi-arid climate, or one with only seasonal rains, the processes by which sandstone begets sandstone tend to develop desert wastes. The soils produced by weathering do not cake together, and are carried away by wind during the drier months. The bare rock appears over broad surfaces, just as it does in storm-swept limestone areas, and any hollow where shelter is afforded tends to become filled with sand (see Fig. 5) . ”

“ The lava-beds that cover wide areas are naturally of basic composition. Basalts thus form enormous plains with rugged surfaces, on which at last a red-brown soil collects. When exposed to denudation from the edge of the region inwards, they develop a marked terrace-structure, through which the rivers cut steep and grim ravines. Grass may grow on the ledges and the tables; but the scarps, controlled by the well-marked vertical jointing of the lavas, remain sharp and prominent, and the rock falls away from these walls in whole columns at a time. ”

“ Slowness of cooling is the really important factor that affects the size of crystals, that is, the coarseness of grain, in igneous rocks. Pressure may promote crystallisation, by raising the melting-points of minerals; but, after a certain maximum effect in this direction, it is quite possible that an increase of pressure may actually lower the melting-points, and cause one or other mineral to remain in solution in the magma. ”

“ The cement of sandstones is very varied. On our modern coasts, springs draining from a limestone land, or even running through banks of broken shells, will deposit calcite in the interstices of the beach, until slabs and shelves of conglomerate and sandstone arise in defiance of the waves. On coasts where calcium bicarbonate is abundant, it may be precipitated by any cause that diminishes its solvent. Mere evaporation, and the escape of carbon dioxide from - 61 - the water as it is scattered into spray, lead to the deposition of a cement between the grains of sand. ”

“ The instability of the non-crystalline siliceous skeletons in geological time makes it probable that a rock cannot long retain them when buried among other strata in the earth.
It is clear that there is no support for the view, current from the time of James Hutton onwards, that nodular flints are formed by matter in hot solutions entering pre-existing cavities in limestone rocks. But there must be cases where the silicification of limestone has arisen through its penetration by hot springs. ”

“ None the less, clays are notably impure, and in many there is a large admixture of quartz sand. The kaolin, derived originally from the decay of other silicates, is rarely freed from a variety of minerals and rock-fragments that were associated with it in its place of origin. Grains of quartz and unaltered felspar a tenth of a millimetre in diameter distinctly "lighten" a clay soil, on account of their relative coarseness. A sandy clay is styled a Loam, and a fine-grained loam furnishes the ideal soil for the general purposes of a farmer. ”

“ Among more consolidated limestones, as we have hinted, the joints are effective in promoting bold rock-scenery. The absorptive power of the rock, rather than its hardness, prevents it from being washed away. Water that might round the edges of escarpments and send down taluses to modify the slopes sinks into the ground and works out passages by solution. On level surfaces, the solubility of limestone in water charged with carbon dioxide from the atmosphere is apparent by the formation of pitted hollows, with edges between them that grow sharper until they are worn through. ”

“ Far wilder scenery is formed by the more continuous sandstone masses of the Harlech Beds in western Wales, which are grits so firmly cemented that the rock breaks across the quartz-grains. Much of the Old Red Sandstone is of equally hard quality (Fig. 6) . Its purple or grey conglomerates, the pebbles of which are quartzite in a quartz cement, form bare - 76 - and rugged masses in the Great Glen south-west of Inverness, and are responsible in Kerry for some of the wildest rock-scenery in the British Isles. ”

“ A magma may be modified by the rocks into which it intrudes, so that a "basic" fluid may become charged with silica from a sandstone, the product crystallising as a granite; while an "acid" fluid may become so charged with limestone that diorite ultimately results. A. Harker [80] has discussed both theories clearly, with a strong leaning to the acceptance of magmatic differentiation in the cauldron as the only important cause of variation. ”

“ A common case arises where a granite magma, perhaps already bearing crystals, is intruded, under pressure operating from a distance, into a well-bedded series of sedimentary rocks. The sediments open up like the leaves of a book and admit the invader along their planes of stratification. Even limestone may thus become interlaminated with an igneous rock, - 122 - just as basalt has been known to separate the annual rings of trees involved in it. ”

“ In many cases the chemical composition of a mineral varies by a well-defined - 7 - series of atomic replacements, and we cannot feel called upon to establish a new species for every step away from the rigid type. Sodium thus replaces potassium to some extent in orthoclase felspar. The crystalline form, again, may not be specifically characteristic, as, for instance, in the members of the garnet series, which crystallise in the cubic system. The homogeneity of molecular structure throughout the individual may be regarded as the most essential feature of what we style a mineral species ”

“ Though calcium carbonate is far less soluble than calcium sulphate, large quantities are carried invisibly, owing to the presence of carbon dioxide, in river waters, and thus accumulate in inland seas that have no outlet except by evaporation. Here Calcareous Tufa may be deposited as a crust upon the shores and on the growing islets, as the water shrinks away, and before the more soluble gypsum and rock-salt can separate out. Hot springs of volcanic origin, like the Sprudel of Karlsbad in Bohemia, may deposit calcium carbonate as the water cools and - 15 - is relieved from pressure. ”

“ Unless earth-pressures have brought the mass into the condition of shale or slate, the tiny flaky kaolin particles, and the associated very small grains of other minerals, have not shaken themselves down into a closely aggregated state. When moistened, however, and again dried, the surface-tension of the film of water about any group of grains, increasing as evaporation thins the film, draws the grains nearer to one another, and a considerable shrinkage of the mass results. ”

“ It cannot be denied, however, that coral-reefs and their associated detrital deposits must exercise a very important influence in the formation of solid limestone.
Even small knots and local groups of compound corals are seen in ordinary limestones to serve as a mesh in which other organic remains have become entrapped. The ease with which the aragonite of their skeletons becomes silicified causes them often to stand out on weathered surfaces with all the delicacy of structure displayed upon a modern reef. ”

“ When formed still farther from land, pure chalk arises from the consolidation of foraminiferal ooze, and the probable depth in which it accumulated must be judged from the nature of the associated organisms. A white limestone may, however, arise in a comparatively shallow sea, where the rivers bring down little solid matter from the land. A coast formed of pure limestone, with clear streams flowing from a land of similar rock behind, may allow of the development of pure limestone on its shores. ”

“ The most extraordinary rock-scenery in Europe is due to limestone in the dolomitic state. It is not clear if the crags and pinnacles of Tyrol are caused by the change from calcium carbonate into dolomite, whereby a granular mass has arisen, weathering freely along its vertical joints. It may well be that these compact limestones have developed an exceptionally jointed structure under earth-stresses, and that faulting has intensified their tendency to break up into fort-like blocks. Stratified masses of more normal Rhætic limestones often provide a terraced structure near the mountain-crests ”

“ The more we regard the oldest gneisses of one region after another, the more we see in them igneous matter that has attempted to assimilate sediments of still older date. The banded structures that have been appealed to as indicating the power of earth-movements to deform the solid crystalline crust prove, in very many cases, to record the foliation of rocks that were already metamorphosed before the igneous matter spread among them. ”

“ At the same time, the minerals present in the rock, and also its structure, record certain phases of its history, and deserve an important place in any system of classification. The natural history of an igneous rock is concerned with its mode of occurrence, and no isolated specimen can satisfy the geological investigator. In the field, the porphyritic crystals, which have an important influence on the total chemical composition, may be found to be strangers to the magma, and to have been derived from some mass imperfectly absorbed. ”

“ The rock suffers, however, from its solubility in water containing even a mild acid. In the gases dissolved by rain-water from the atmosphere, carbon dioxide assumes a far larger proportion than that which it possesses in the air itself. The surface of limestone slabs becomes in consequence pitted and corroded by every rain that falls. The sulphuric acid in the air of modern coal-consuming cities is, however, still more deadly in its action. ”