Motoko Reece

“ Our reason being that these techniques of Katai--treatment of the theme, development of the characters, and straightforward description--gave a tangible format to his fellow writers who had been seeking new forms and who had been moving away from the old abstract literary theories of Shōyō. We all know that it is the talent of a writer to be able to find the best way to express what he wants to say, and that in order to do so he must be able to select the most effective method from available sources. ”

“ Let us now turn our attention to what Katai did not use from Einsame Menschen in Futon. In this connection, we have already noted that Hauptmann employed a drama form to bring out his theme of conflict between nature and traditions; on the other hand, Katai used a novel form to express a very similar theme to that of Hauptmann's. Why then did Katai use a novel as a means of expressing his theme, instead of using a drama form? Are we not in order when we assume that the novelist has the advantage of being permitted to speak directly to his readers about what his characters think and do? ”

“ Needless to say techniques are only tools and they themselves do not have any literary value unless they are used in the right place and in the right context of any piece of work by a writer who knows how to avail himself of their best use. In Futon Katai demonstrates his ability to use all available techniques of both the Orient and the West to draw his readers into his story, where, as the story unfolds, his readers are able to sense the experiences of Katai's characters. ”

“ Miya was to him what the manifold ties of a family are to others, she represented the love of parents, sisters and brothers; she was indeed all in all to the poor Kwanichi; not merely love's young dream, but the substance of what the love of a united family would be. ”

“ Futabatei's explanation of "idea" and "forms" will permit us a glimpse into his theory which inspired Shōyō.
. . . the idea is present in all material objects and abstract concepts, and that it expresses the true nature of those things. The Idea is eternal and immutable and would exist even without any Form. The outward Form assumed by objects or concepts, in fact, tends to disguise the Idea and prevents our being clearly aware of its universality. Man is compelled by his nature to search out the unchanging factor among all the changing Forms of the world ”

“ Here in the above passage, the theme of Einsame Menschen seems to spring to life, as Hauptmann, for the first time, champions Johannes's side of the issue, "Whoever seeks to know Nature seeks to know God. God is Nature." [2] The above statement contains all that is required of a well-constructed theme: characters, conflict and conclusion. In other words, it seems to allude to the theme of Einsame Menschen which we are seeking: the contrast and tension between the natural and the unnatural, with a strong implication that nature is best, or at least that it is preferable to follow nature. ”

“ In addition to his not being a family man, Johannes is a self-centered man, although I might add that he has a tender heart. He loves his wife but when by chance he meets Anna Mahr, who is a more congenial companion than his wife, he falls in love with Anna. Johannes's conscience does not hurt him as does Tokio's, because Johannes firmly believes that his affection for his wife has grown deeper and fuller as the result of his acquaintanceship with Anna, as is shown in the following talk between Johannes and Anna. ”

“ That night, Tokio wrote a serious letter to Yoshiko's parents. . . . [15] Contrary to Tokio's indecisive mental state, Johannes possesses qualities and elements in his personality that are lacking in Tokio. Johannes loves himself all the time and absolutely rejects conformity which denies the rights of an individual. He likes his parents but disagrees with their religious views, as we have already seen. He is fond of his wife, but he is not a family man like Tokio who takes up part-time employment to support his family. This characteristic of Johannes is borne out in his retort to his wife. ”

“ It can be observed that Katai succeeded in Futon by describing his main character Tokio's experiences with Yoshiko, thereby bringing into focus one of the fundamental problems of our lives: the fact that ambition, sensitivity, and the striving for fulfillment which these entail, are very natural and are inhibited not by nature, but by the unnatural morals of society. ”

“ One minute they seem to be gay but the next minute they are depressed. They are easily excited by trifling things, and equally readily hurt by matters of no importance. Tokio was ceaselessly perplexed over Yoshiko's gentle attitude that neither seemed to be one of love, nor yet not of love. The power of morals and the restraints of customs can be more easily destroyed than torn cloth, given the opportunity. What does not come readily is the opportunity. [29]
The story begins with a smooth rhythm through which one can barely perceive the conflicting undercurrents in Tokio's mind. ”

“ Realism, the only technique which can achieve this, should be adopted. [5]
In "Shōsetsu Sōron" Futabatei theorized on the realism advocated by Shōyō through the adoption of the concepts of "idea" and "forms" of the Russian realists, who in their turn were inspired by Hegelian philosophy. Futabatei's Ukigumo was his experimental novel using this new theory. His purpose in writing Ukigumo was, therefore, not merely to describe characters, as was the case in Shōyō's Tōsei Shosei Katagi. On the contrary, Futabatei was trying to find an eternal "idea" which was manifested in his characters. ”

“ Historians of modern literature have generally used the year 1885 to mark the inception of western style fiction in Japan. For it was in that year that one of the pioneers of Meiji literature, Tsubouchi Shōyō, published Shōsetsu Shinzui, or The Essence of the Novel, which contained the first literary theory that set forth the basic ideals of modern literature. ”

“ On the other hand there is evidence that Tōson was well qualified to read English. It is known that Tōson taught English at Meiji Girls' School after graduating from Meiji Gakuin, a missionary school in Tokyo. [5] Judging from Tōson's language background, it can be surmised that if Katai knew Tōson could not read German, he would not have lent him a German version of Einsame Menschen. Therefore it is logical to assume that it must have been a copy of the English version of Einsame Menschen that Katai lent Tōson. ”

“ It's no good for a woman still to be so weak-minded as to depend too much on others. As Sudermann's Magda said if a woman is so lacking in courage as to allow herself to be transferred immediately from the hands of her father into the hands of her future husband, she is worthless. ”

“ Johannes' wife, Käthe, tries very hard to assist him, but Johannes knows that her help is of no great value. Taking everyone into account, he cannot expect to get any encouragement from his family. As a matter of fact, his family hinders rather than helps him in his work. And in addition to this family trouble, even his childhood friend, Braun, does not show the slightest appreciation for Johannes' work.
Under these distressing circumstances Johannes meets Anna Mahr, the heroine of Einsame Menschen. Anna is a "new woman" who is intelligent and emancipated. ”

“ Both methods are necessary for complete understanding, but it is the great gift of Art that it can make the existence of the universal Idea, buried as it is in an infinite amount of Forms, clearly apparent to the most ordinary human being. ”

“ When he was eleven Katai went back to school in his home town in Gumma to improve his education, as he found that he was not cut out for the type of merchant's work he was doing in a bookstore. He studied literary Chinese under Yoshida Rōken, formerly a teacher of several feudal lords. Three years later his family went to Tokyo where his brother Miyato had secured a position.
It was about 1885 when Katai started to send poems composed in Chinese to the magazine Eisai Shinshi, or New Magazine for Talented Men. Katai writes about Eisai Shinsai in Bunshō Sekai, or The World of Writing. ”

“ Tokio gets steadily angrier because he has tried with sincerity to help Yoshiko's love affair with Tanaka. Tokio seems to assert that a mentor is no different from an ordinary man who is disturbed by this type of situation. ”

“ At this point in the story Futabatei clearly shows the characteristic differences between Bunzō and his fellow worker Honda. Honda, while appearing to be a good fellow, has in reality an underhanded disposition, as he is shown to be constantly praising his superior and placing him on a pedestal. Sometimes Honda will even overpraise his superior for the most trivial matters. ”

“ For the purpose of further elucidating this point let us examine how Kōyō, who was the leading novelist of the Kenyūsha, describes a similar situation to that of Tokio. The following excerpt is selected from Kōyō's masterpiece Konjiki Yasha, or the Gold Demon, with the hope of illustrating the significance of Futon by comparing the narrative techniques of Katai to those of Kōyō. In the ensuing passages Kōyō describes his principal character's (Kwanichi) mental state after he has lost the woman he loves (Miya) to a man of wealth. ”

“ He asserts that if a man is compelled to take a job for the support of his family, and if his wife never shows any appreciation for his efforts on their behalf, then it is a natural consequence for him to start looking for consolation from others.
The following excerpt from Futon implies Katai's tacit agreement with Hauptmann's concept of natural human emotions, as described in the relationship between Johannes and Anna. ”

“ Under these circumstances, the heroines in both stories are able to satisfy with their modern ideas the emotional gaps existing between these husbands and their wives. Love by the main character for his wife was dispelled in each case by the appearance of a heroine. The main characters of Futon and Einsame Menschen are superficially very similar; however, images of these characters unrolled at the close of each story show that they are endowed by quite different personalities.
Tokio lectures Yoshiko on his views relating to an emancipated woman:
"It's time women should be aware. ”

“ The characteristics of Katai's early works were those of a "nature" poet who was taught to express his emotions freely.
(2) Katai started as a writer at an early age, but during this period he had not grasped an understanding of the prose medium. It was in this formative naturalistic period (1900–05) that Katai was inspired by Maupassant's works. Katai relates his impression of Maupassant in his memoir Tokyo no Sanjūnen:
How my mind, eyes, and body were struck with wonder at these twelve volumes of exciting After-Dinner Series! ”

“ Futabatei, while criticizing Honda, brings out the good points of Bunzō who, like a good descendant of the warrior class, refuses to praise anyone for the sake of promotion. His attitude costs him his position on which the livelihood of his old mother and his own future depend. Bunzō, in despair, believes it might be better for him to seek new living quarters ”

“ Soon Bunzō and O-Sei are attracted to each other; this situation pleases both the uncle and aunt as they hope to marry their daughter in the not too distant future to their educated and filial nephew. But this desire for their daughter's marriage to Bunzō cools after the aunt hears that Bunzō has been discharged from his position. She now thinks that Honda, a co-worker of Bunzō, a man of pleasing manners and practical outlook, might perhaps be a better suitor for O-Sei. ”

“ It would appear that Futabatei conveyed in his Ukigumo conditions as they existed by skillfully capturing man's fundamental problem, which was manifested in his characters: the struggle to maintain one's integrity despite the trend towards materialism of that time. ”

“ Their children are the main concern of his wife and she, in turn, is the only one who is loved by their children. Tokio cannot find peace in his home nor contentment in his work. This situation results in his being unable to throw himself wholeheartedly into his lifework, writing.
This outline of Futon shows that Katai has adopted conditions for his character, Tokio, similar to those used by Hauptmann in creating Johannes Vockerat before Johannes met Anna Mahr. ”

“ I'm, after all, an old-fashioned woman, and did not have the courage to put the new ideas into practice. I have talked this matter over with Tanaka, and we decided that we would not reveal, under any circumstances, our secret to any other person. ”

“ They go to a farm field to steal melons. They succeed, only after receiving a beating by the field keeper, but the melons are not yet ripe and are tasteless. The story is simple but it is noteworthy because Katai has written in Uribatake about his own personal experience, which often was his source in later stories.
From 1892 to 1899 Katai wrote twenty short stories. He studied the Japanese stories of Saikaku and Chikamatsu, [10] as well as the Russian novels of Turgenev, Tolstoy, Dostoevsky and Gorky at the Ueno Library in Tokyo. ”