William Hemingway Mills

“ For stations with an intermittent or spasmodic traffic in heavy timber, large blocks of stone, or other unwieldy articles, a travelling-crane is particularly suitable, as it will meet all the wants so far as the lifting is concerned, and when the rush of traffic is over, it can be easily transferred to some other sphere of usefulness. The crane-siding itself is never very costly, as the rails are generally old rails taken out of the main line, and laid on good second-hand sleepers. They have little to do, and merely form a track for the moving crane. ”

“ Where the traffic is uncertain, or the foundations bad, or out in undeveloped districts abroad, a building of timber will serve the purpose for a number of years, or until the period of probation has passed, and the actual requirements are accurately ascertained. In a timber-built shed, the decay usually commences about the ground line, but if the nature of the soil will permit of the construction of a small dwarf foundation wall of masonry or concrete up to about nine inches above the ground line, the life of the building will be prolonged for several years. ”

“ Some engineers are advocates for a hard steel rail, and claim for it greater durability and longer wear; but even supposing such hard rail should possess a slight superiority over the soft rail, it is well to consider whether such assumed advantage is not obtained at the risk of incurring greater liability to fracture. It must be borne in mind that a rail, once placed in the road, is exposed to all the changes of temperature from heat to frost, and has frequently to sustain increased strains arising from loose sleepers, where the gravel or ballast has been disturbed during heavy rains. ”

“ When comparing the relative merits of the flange-rail and bull-head-rail permanent way, the question of strength and durability must be considered, as well as that of economy. The flange-rail road has undoubtedly fewer parts and fastenings, and when the flange is wide, the sleepers sound, and the rail securely held down to the sleepers, the result is a smooth running road. So long as the rail can be maintained in a constant close contact with the wooden sleeper, the running is almost noiseless, the jarring on the rails being absorbed or taken off by the timber ”

“ Valuable and interesting statistics have from time to time been recorded, with a view to ascertain the average life of a steel rail, by obtaining the number of million tons of train load which it would sustain before it became worn down to such an extent as to be no longer of service on the line. It will be readily understood that the rate of wear of a steel rail will depend not only on the weight and section of the rail itself, but on the class of rolling-stock, and the description of traffic it has to carry. ”

“ At all level crossings of public roads, the gates to be so constructed that they may be closed either across the railway, or across the road at each side of the crossing, and a lodge, or, in the case of a station, a gatekeeper’s box, to be provided, unless the gates are worked from a signal cabin. The gates must not be capable of being opened at the same time for the road and the railway, and must be so hung as not to admit of being opened outwards towards the road. ”

“ An ordinary goods train is made up of several kinds of trucks, some empty, some loaded, many of them unequally loaded, all of them subject to heavy work and rough handling, and more likely to give trouble than the higher class vehicle, the passenger carriage. The breaking down or derailment of one or two goods trucks on a line of rails close alongside the fast passenger rails, would in all probability so foul and obstruct the passenger line as to cause a very serious accident to an express train which could not be stopped in time. ”

“ Goods-sheds may be built of stone, brick, iron, or timber, or a combination of all of them. Where the requirements are well proved, and the traffic certain, it is better to build a substantial permanent structure. Iron sheds, with sides and roofs of galvanized corrugated iron sheets, will last for many years if not made of too light materials. There are many cases where it is more prudent to put up a goods-shed in timber than to incur the cost of one of more permanent character. ”

“ Where the level of any turnpike or public road has to be altered in making any railway, the gradient of any altered road need not be better than the mean inclination of the existing road within a distance of 250 yards of the point of crossing the railway; but where the existing roads have easy gradients, then the gradients of the altered roads, whether carried over, or under, or on the level with the railway, must not be steeper than 1 in 30 for a turnpike road, 1 in 20 for a public carriage road, 1 in 16 for a private or occupation road. ”

“ An arriving goods train is first drawn out of the main-traffic lines into one of the shunting lines, and then handed over to the staff of men in charge of the sorting operations, who at once mark the waggons according to the number or designation of the particular siding into which they have to be placed. A suitable engine is generally set apart for this work, and in a very short time the entire train is divided out by one or more waggons at a time, and distributed into the various sidings, representing different sections of the line, or groups to be handed over to neighbouring railways. ”

“ In our colonies, and out in the far West of the United States, and in newly opened out countries, fencing, except near towns and villages, is rather the exception than the rule; people and animals roam at will from one side of the railway to the other wherever they find a convenient crossing place, and the cowcatcher of the engine has to be depended upon for throwing aside any animal which may be standing, or resting, on the line of rails at the passing of a train. ”

“ As a rule, these road-bridges are simple and inexpensive in character, except in towns, or in cases where the line crosses the roads very obliquely, or where the road is situated at the top of a deep cutting, or bottom of a high embankment. Away from towns and out in the open country, permission is generally obtained to divert the roads to a moderate extent, so as to obtain a more favourable angle and height for the bridge; but in towns, where the roads become streets, sometimes of great width, with houses and shops on each side, little or no diversion can be allowed. ”

“ Every one of the heavy works on a line, whether lofty bridges, long viaducts, or costly tunnels, not only enormously increase the original expenditure of the undertaking, but also entail large annual outlay in the necessary constant supervision and maintenance.
Each particular scheme will have to be discussed on its own individual merits. The heavy, high-speed passenger traffic line will suggest light gradients and easy curves, while on secondary lines and in thinly populated districts it may be prudent, for the sake of economy, to introduce sharper curves and heavier gradients. ”

“ On a working railway, the train service must be kept going, irrespective of renewals, and very often the best that can be done is to reduce the double line to single line working at the site of the operations. It is not always expedient or possible to make a temporary bridge and diverted line for traffic purposes, as the expenditure to be incurred might be too great to warrant the outlay, or there may be local difficulties to effectually prevent the introduction of a provisional structure. ”

“ Looking at a goods-shed merely as a medium for the convenient transfer of merchandise between the railway and the roadway, the inference is soon drawn that the removal of the goods into trucks or carts should be effected as speedily as possible, otherwise a large extent of shed-room will be required for carrying on a moderate amount of work. ”

“ To facilitate drainage, it is essential that a railway tunnel should be laid down with a gradient or gradients falling in the direction of one or both ends of the tunnel. In nearly all tunnels a considerable amount of water finds its way in through the weeping-holes left for that purpose in the side walls, and must be carried away in suitable drains. If the quantity of water be small, ordinary water-tables, one on each side, may be sufficient; but for large volumes of water it will be necessary to build substantial side-drains, or an ample culvert below the level of the rails. ”

“ Mile after mile of line must be laid out in almost inaccessible places, loose or broken rocks must be avoided, a firm foundation must be obtained at all points skirting high ledges, and ample provision must be made for those mountain torrents which rise so suddenly, and are liable to sweep away all before them.
Many grand examples of these detour lines are in existence in different parts of the world, and the traveller passing over them can realize the difficulties that had to be encountered, and the masterly manner in which they have been overcome. ”

“ Not only are the wheels subjected to very severe torsional strains, but the temperature at the circumference is raised very high in consequence of the friction. Perhaps, theoretically, the safest wheel would be one made out of a solid piece of metal, similar to the chilled cast-iron wheels of the United States, or the steel disc wheels used on some lines in Europe, in either of which holes can be left for sprags. Wheels of this description can withstand very heavy wear and tear, they are not affected by increased temperature, and they certainly have the minimum of parts to work loose. ”

“ Much has been done in permanent way and equipment to make the present high speeds possible, but more will be required if the speeds are to go on increasing. The passenger carriages for such work must be very substantial, and naturally heavy. The locomotives to haul a long train must have increased power and weight, and will necessitate stronger rails to carry the greater rolling loads. With the present system of motive-power, the heaviest item is the locomotive, and its weight must always determine and regulate the character of the works and permanent way. ”

“ A proper supply of weighing machines for carts, drays, railway trucks, and packages on the loading-banks will be necessary to facilitate the checking of the goods.
There is always a large proportion of traffic which can be dealt with outside the goods-sheds, either on loading-banks or cartways alongside the sidings. Outside loading-banks should be of good width, with approach roads of easy gradient. In tropical countries a light shed, open on all sides, is frequently erected over a portion of these outside banks, to protect the goods and workmen from the heat of the sun. ”

“ He should, indeed, go a little further, and as his perceptive ability and training will always enable him the more readily to foreshadow the direction in which improvements or changes are tending, he should study out and be prepared with his schemes to meet the new departures as the requirements gradually arise.
Strength and efficiency are the leading points which must be always kept in view, and the engineer must never forget that he is solely responsible for the safety of the line and works, and of the public passing over the same. ”

“ Rails must be made more uniform in quality, and must be free from the imputation of fracture under regular wear. Notwithstanding the great improvements made in the preparation of the steel, and in the rolling, there are still far too many steel rails which break under traffic to allow rail-makers to rest satisfied with their work. Something is still wanting in the manufacture to effectually remove this disposition to fracture. The safe rail, the rail of the future, must be one that may bend and may wear, but will never break under ordinary use in the road. ”

“ The fencing in of a line of railway serves the double purpose of defining the boundary of the company’s property, and of forming a barrier for the prevention of trespass of persons and animals on to the line. For our home lines, fencing is compulsory, and the same obligation exists on many foreign railways. ”

“ The heavier engine doubtless possesses greater tractive power, but apart from the question of tractive power is the all-important one of steadiness and safety on the rails. A locomotive passing round a curve, even at a moderate velocity, produces disturbances in proportion to the capability of the machine to adapt itself to the altered position, and if both the engine and permanent way are constructed so as to be almost unyielding, then destructive wear and tear and increased risk of derailment must ensue. ”

“ There is no doubt persons have been struck by such gates when closing across the road, and heavy claims for injuries have been decreed against railway companies, who were unable to prove that the man in charge had called out or given warning before moving the gates. To ensure that due and undeniable warning shall always be given, a firm of signal-makers have patented an appliance by which a powerful electric gong, fixed on the top of a tall post close to the gates, is sounded automatically by the gate machinery itself, and before the gates actually commence to move. ”

“ Excellent running roads have been made with longitudinal sleepers, notwithstanding the difficulty of making a good bridge-rail joint; but it is well to bear in mind that almost all the lines which originally adopted this form of permanent way have since reverted to the ordinary cross-sleeper road. The longitudinal sleeper road is an expensive road to lay down and maintain. The main pieces are of large scantling, must be of good quality of timber, and are consequently costly. The cross-pieces, or transomes, must be carefully fitted and secured with heavy ironwork. ”

“ When writing a specification for steel rails, it is usual to state the number of tons per square inch in tensile strain which the steel must be able to sustain without fracture, and also to stipulate that some of the rails will be tested by the falling-weight test. In the latter test a rail is placed, say at 3 feet bearings, and in a similar position to what it would occupy in the road, and a weight of eighteen hundredweight, or one ton or more, according to section of rail, is allowed to fall from a height of 9 or 10 feet, on to the rail, at the centre between the bearings. ”

“ A bogie truck is really a short carriage frame complete in itself, with its wheels, springs, and brake appliances, and is attached to the under side of the carriage body by a central pivot, round which the truck can swivel or rotate sufficiently to adapt itself to the curved portions of the line. With a bogie truck at each end of a long carriage, the vehicle will pass as easily round curves as on the straight line, side pressure, or grinding against the rails, is obviated, and friction is reduced to a minimum. ”

“ The working of the passenger engine and train is assumed to be under favourable circumstances, with fine weather, fairly straight line, first-class permanent way, modern rolling-stock with oil axle-boxes and perfect lubrication, and all the conditions most suitable to ensure the least resistance to the moving load. For the goods engine and train a greater resistance per ton of load is assumed, as the goods trucks are never so perfect or easy in the running as the passenger carriages. ”

“ As the sleepers under the chair road suffer less from the crushing of the timber, they have a much longer life in the line, and remain serviceable until they are incapacitated from decay. This is a very important item in places where timber sleepers are expensive. The steadiness of the chair prolongs the efficiency of the spikes.
As the actual wearing portion of the rail is the head, or wheel contact surface, a liberal area—consistent with the expected traffic—must be given to that part, whether for a bull-head rail or a flange rail. ”

“ The island-platform arrangement possesses many advantages for the exchange of passenger traffic. All the platforms are connected and on one level, and passengers, together with their luggage, can be quickly transferred from one train to another. One set of waiting-rooms, refreshment-rooms, etc., are sufficient, and are available for the passengers of all the four trains. A smaller number of station men are required for the work, as the staff can be more concentrated and better utilized than when there are separate platforms on opposite sides of the line. ”

“ With a narrow-gauge type there would, of course, always be the time and expense of transhipment to or from the ordinary railway trucks in the same way as with the road carts, but the time and expense may be lessened by so constructing the little narrow-gauge trucks that the bodies may be readily lifted off the frames and wheels, and be placed like packing-cases in the railway waggons.
It is natural to look to the railways of the first rank for the latest advances in construction, appliances, and equipment, and it is generally there they are found. ”

“ CHAPTER I. Location of a line of railway—Government regulations—Questions for consideration in connection with gauge, gradients, and curves.
Location.—The locating of a line of railway, or the determination of its exact route, is influenced by many circumstances. In a rich country, with thickly populated districts and large industrial enterprises, there are towns to be served, manufacturing centres to be accommodated, and harbours to be brought into connection; while, at the same time, there may be important estates which must be avoided and private properties which must not be entered. ”

“ As passenger carriages pass from one company’s line to another’s, it is essential for the public safety that, although the widths of the carriages on the different lines may differ from each other, the widths across the carriages from the outside of the continuous footboard on one side, to the outside of the continuous footboard on the opposite side, should be identical for the carriages of all railway companies, so that the lines of rails may be laid at the proper distance from the edges of the passenger platforms. ”

“ The fact that our own home lines, the principal Continental lines, and nearly all that vast network of railways in the United States of America, have been laid to the 4 feet 81⁄2 inch gauge, testifies to the general opinion of its utility and efficiency; and we know that included in that list are the railways which carry the largest, heaviest, and fastest train service in the world. ”