Frederic Colby Lucas

“ What is the color? What is the relation between the color of the insect and its surroundings? Is the insect solitary in its habits or associated with others of the same species? If in association with others, note the numbers, and what they are doing. What modes of locomotion do you observe in this insect? Which is the most common? If it flies or jumps, note the distance. If you find the young, note whether they differ from the adult in general appearance, and if so, in what ways they differ. Do they differ in food? What other insects do you find in the same habitat? ”

“ How do you think they protect themselves from enemies? State how the fuzz and dust on your specimen might influence a bird's liking for it. Contrast the size and usefulness of the wings of the butterfly with those of some other insect you know about; contrast their legs; state how development of one set of structures may cause another set to be simple or feeble. Most moths are active by night. What explanation can you give for their large eyes and expanded feelers? Feelers of insects may be for any or all of the following: touch, taste, smell, and hearing. ”

“ Describe any color markings you see. If any of the legs differ from the others or are of peculiar shape or length, describe them and tell what you think they may be fitted to do. As a rule, beetles have harder "shells" than other insects. Does this shell completely inclose the body, or can you find any soft parts exposed? How are the head, thorax, and abdomen joined so as to carry out the apparent purpose of protection? What is the outline of the body—a continuous line or one with many irregularities? If possible, try to lift up one side of the "shell" from the hinder end of the body. ”

“ Trace the history of a tapeworm from the egg to the adult. At what stage are they most likely to be destroyed? What provision is there for this? What advantages are there to the host in the fact that a tapeworm's egg cannot develop in the original host? What advantages to the parasite? What organs has a parasite lost, if it ever had them? How does it succeed without them? What connection is there between parasitism and degeneration? Can you decide which is cause and which is effect? If so, which is? Why do worms so easily become parasitic? What advantages are there in becoming a parasite? ”

“ Summary of Important Points in the Study of Sponges What are two functions of the spicules or fibers? What are at least two of the functions of the endoderm cells? What can you suggest as functions for the ectoderm cells? In what cases do cells show "team work" in accomplishing an object? What degree of specialization is indicated by the fact that the cells may exchange positions and functions? What work can any single cell of a sponge do? Compare the work done by such a cell with that done by a paramecium. What work can a whole sponge do? ”

“ Notice the division of the body into three regions: head, thorax, and abdomen. The six legs, the large wings, and the small feelers may be easily found, as are the large eyes, the extensible mouth, and beneath the larger wings the small undeveloped ones looking like tiny knobs.
State the general color of your specimen and give any special markings on its body. Is the body smooth or has it a covering of any kind? Do you regard the fly as a cleanly animal? Why? Under what conditions does the fly use its legs? its wings? What enables it to walk upside down? ”

“ Since the frog swallows its food alive and entire, what work must the stomach do? What digestive organs would be absent from the mouth, or else poorly developed? Since the frog is carnivorous, what digestive ferments are probably present, and what ones absent from the alimentary canal? Fat bodies are largest in the fall, and are rarely found in the spring. ”

“ The horse is very similar to man in its physical and mental character, being subject to the same ailments and treatment and having the same impulses of affection, hatred, fear, jealousy, obedience, willfulness, memory, and perhaps reason. It is of all animals most careful in its eating and drinking; because its stomach is small, the food should not be bulky but concentrated, grain forming a goodly portion of the ration.
Perhaps the most important point in the structure of the horse is the form of the leg and foot. ”

“ What are some methods of feeding which tend to secure greater egg-production? Explain some of the special features of such methods of housing and keeping chickens as the Philo System, Corning System, etc. What precautions must be taken in raising chickens so as to prevent disease and attacks of enemies? What does it cost per year to keep a dozen hens? How many can a person keep profitably on a city lot, if he is not to make a special business of chicken raising? ”

“ What do turtles eat while in the laboratory? Since turtles have no teeth, how can they bite off their food? What can you discover with respect to the respiration of the turtle? Does it breathe when under water? What sense organs has a turtle? Which appears to be most highly developed? How do you know? In what various ways is the turtle protected against enemies? (You should state several.) Are you afraid of a turtle? If so, why? Why does the turtle need more protection than the snake or lizard? Describe the color pattern of the turtle you are studying. ”

“ Describe the shell with respect to thickness and flexibility. What is the character of the surface as to roughness or smoothness or covering of hairs or scales? Reproduction and Development. Note.—It may be necessary to get answers to these questions from books. Where are the eggs deposited? What is the number of the eggs? How soon do they hatch? What is the food of the larva or nymph? Are the food habits of the insects harmful to man? If so, how? Describe the larva as to form, color, and appendages. Is it capable of locomotion? Is the metamorphosis complete or incomplete? ”

“ What color markings has it which might serve for other grasshoppers to see as signals? Explain how this signaling is done. Explain how the legs are placed so as to act as springs in jumping and alighting. What advantages in having the wings attached on the upper side and the legs on the under side of the body? Explain how the small wings are protective, and how the large ones are protected. Why is it better for the grasshopper to have its mouth on the under side of its head instead of in front? The large eyes are supposed to be far-sighted, the small ones near-sighted. ”

“ What advantages are there in having the heart in a chamber separated from the other vital organs? Of how many chambers does the heart consist? Why should at least one of them be muscular? How many times does the blood pass through the heart in making a complete circuit of the body? ”

“ Place a living crayfish in a tray with water to cover it, and take it to your table. Watch the crayfish as it walks about in the water, then take it out and let it walk out of water. Compare the two processes. What causes the differences? How many appendages are used in walking? What order, if any, is there in moving the legs? Which method, walking or swimming, does it use in going to some particular spot, e.g. in going to find food or cover? Why? Gently turn the animal on its back and watch the movements of its appendages as it rights itself. ”

“ Which senses are most serviceable in finding food? in protecting against enemies? Protection. In what different ways are feathers protective to the bird? Study the arrangement of the feathers to find how protection is increased in this way. How do the feathers and parts of feathers which lie next the body differ from those which are on the outer surface? ”

“ Which regions are capable of movement? Locomotion. What are the various kinds of locomotion a grasshopper can use? Which are used in the vivarium and which when free in the laboratory? Which legs are used in jumping? How are these legs especially adapted to this, in length, structure and direction? Could a grasshopper jump if the third pair of legs were arranged like the other two pairs? Why? How is the animal able to cling to grass stems and not slip down? ”

“ Give the stages which show how the fold of skin develops into separate fins. How does the number of gills and gill slits change in the series? (Give definite numbers.) How may the reduction in the number of gills be compensated for in the amount of surface exposed for the exchange of gases in breathing? How is protection afforded the delicate structure of the gills in the final form? Give the stages in the formation of a definite, symmetrical mouth with jaws of equal size. The presence of sense organs may be taken to indicate that there is an organ of control, or brain. ”

“ How do earthworms reproduce? What care do they take of their young? What tissues or organs of earthworms correspond in function with the ectoderm of hydra; with the endoderm? Why does an earthworm need a system of blood circulation more than a hydra does? Contrast the number of openings in an earthworm's alimentary canal with the number in a hydra's digestive cavity. ”

“ It is further recognized that the use of a reference library is absolutely essential in connection with and to supplement the laboratory work, as there are some topics beyond the ability of the young student for original investigation as well as impossible in the amount of time usually allotted to the subject in our crowded curricula. Of great importance is the economic side of zoölogy, especially its bearing upon the applied sciences of medicine, sanitation, household science, and agriculture, and this phase has received special attention in this guide. ”

“ Ernest Thompson Seton's story of a rabbit's life is good for the purpose.
What method of locomotion is more highly developed in wild rabbits than in domestic rabbits? Why? When do wild rabbits do their feeding? Why? In what ways do they sometimes do damage in feeding? What senses will probably be more alert than those of the domestic rabbit? Why? Where do wild rabbits usually make their homes? Why? How do they guard against being cornered in their homes? In what ways do they guard against surprise when feeding? What are the principal enemies of rabbits? ”

“ Is the colonial habit common or rare in sponges and cœlenterates? What is chiefly gained? Describe the community life in one of the insects in each of the following groups:— ant, honeybee, termite. bumblebee, paper wasp, hornet. mining bee. carpenter bee, mud wasp, digger wasp. Name the host or hosts in the following cases: trichina, liver fluke, malarial parasite, tapeworm, hook worm. Give the life history of one or more of the parasites just enumerated. What is the effect of parasitism on the structure of the parasite? What is the relation between ants and plant lice? ”

“ How does the chick get out of the shell? How long does it take for it to get out after the shell is chipped? How does a chick look as soon as it has come out of the shell? With what is a chick covered when it is first hatched? How long before feathers begin to develop? How long before a chick needs food? How does it recognize it? Summary. What are the two kinds of development? What are the stages in embryonic development? What two general types of postembryonic development as determined by the amount of the food supplied in the egg? ”

“ In case the name of the insect is not known to you, use a number and some designation as to color or other mark by which it may be known until you have leisure to look up its name by means of keys or books on insects. ”

“ Why absent in many birds? What is there in a bird's construction which enables it to twist its head so far around? What are the advantages in being able to do so? Account for the oiliness of plumage of water birds; for the complete feathering of legs and feet in some forms. Define moulting and discuss its advantages and disadvantages. Give reasons why you would not expect a bird to hibernate. Name two or more kinds of birds which show "recognition marks." What sort of birds would you expect to find with such marks? Why? Is a bird's egg alive when it is laid? ”

“ In the body wall, identify the endodermal and ectodermal layers of cells, separated by the mesoglea, which is usually stained more deeply. Study these cell layers carefully. What work ought each to do? What can you discover in its structure which would fit each layer to do its work? In the tentacles, identify the nettle cells. Where are they? How are they arranged? About how many of them would be discharged if a small animal were to bump into a tentacle? Summary of Important Points in the Study of Hydra Name the different kinds of cells in a hydra. ”

“ Does a beetle spend most of its life on the wing, like bees and flies? How might the body covering and the structure of the outer wings affect or determine the beetle's habits, even against its will? Are the feelers or are the eyes of your specimen more easily distinguished? Upon which of the special senses does it seem to place most dependence? Is your kind of beetle good for anything, either in nature or in human affairs? Make a statement regarding what good or what harm it may do. THE DAMSEL FLY LARVA Materials. ”