Henry Calderwood

“ When we get beyond this line of evidence, difficulties increase. As compensation, it is true on the other hand, that we have full opportunities for study of our own nature. Thus far, evidence is at command both of investigator and critic, much more readily than when observations are concerned with animal life. Great as this advantage is, however, it is more than counterbalanced by the special difficulties attendant upon research into the conditions of moral and spiritual life. Even to reach the problems, we pass beyond questions of structure and form, and applications of physical law. ”

“ If we bring new conditions into the life of the dog and horse, training them to do what they would not do unless trained, we introduce into animal life what does not belong to it under natural law. If in this way we introduce a kind of rule or order of service for animals; and if, in view of this, we begin to speak of "something which may be regarded as animal ethics," the ethics are of our own introduction; they do not appear in actions "proper to the species," but only in actions possible to them under the regulation of man. ”

“ As the mountain throws its shadow on the plain, covering with its cloud homesteads, as well as pastures and their flocks, so the antipathy to pain like a dark shadow is seen spreading everywhere. This antipathy discovers Nature's deeper law, carrying us further into the knowledge of the fixed order of the universe than does the bright sunshine itself. ”

“ And if, while valuing both the gratis benefits and the earned benefits which come to every species, we cannot own "two cardinal and opposed principles of animal ethics," we admit as applicable everywhere in Nature, — even when we include deliberately all that belongs to the highest type of life on the earth, — that there must be "sacrifices, partial or complete" in individual experience, — sacrifice even of individual life, — in order that there may be advance toward those higher results for which Nature is manifestly preparing. ”

“ We have now seen in what sense it can be taken as strictly accurate to say with Spencer that there is "a conduct proper to each species of animal." In what sense do we further speak of this as "relatively good conduct"? That one animal should have insufficient food, and so grow feeble, is not good; that another and stronger should find a more liberal allowance is good, as strength is better than weakness; that by these contrasts there should be gain in development of the species, is good for the species as a whole. But the weaker animal knows only its painful experience ”

“ These are examples of conduct proper to species, that is, conduct for which animals are fitted by structure, appetites, and instinct, in fulfilment of which a healthy existence is maintained, and in accordance with the law of the pleasurable, — accepting the postulate of hedonism as applicable in their case, — the end of their life is served. These things seem to include the whole circle of conduct so far as we can legitimately speak of the action natural to an animal, — action which the animal, left to itself, will naturally do. ”

“ Such a compromise has no place in animal life. "The struggle for existence" implies the reverse. The compromise never had any place in natural history until the appearance of man. In absence of rational intelligence, it was impossible that such a compromise should be contemplated, or even understood. Appetite, passion, force, are the commanding features in animal life; the fight for superiority is incessant because inevitable ”

“ Such forms of feeling in us disclose a great deal as to our better nature; but they carry no testimony in support of animal ethics. They demonstrate that the rational nature is the subject of feeling in which animals have no share. The feelings of admiration and of antipathy are quite natural to us, but we should labor in vain did we attempt to awaken in animals the sentiments we so readily experience. Our difficulty in determining what "instinct" is, and how it affects animal life, in no way concerns our argument here, for instinct is at least in contrast with thought and sense of duty. ”

“ There are, besides, many things to favor Spencer here, for there is an undying interest in questions of animal intelligence. The stream of stories is unending, and we never seem to weary of hearing how many ingenious things the dumb creatures can accomplish. Certainly there has been a large reward for those who have consecrated time and patience to the study of animal life. It seems as if literature might ere long be enriched with the biographies of favorite animals. The times are, therefore, favorable to a discussion of "animal ethics." ”

“ We have to consider the "antipathy or sympathy" awakened when we contemplate the actions of animals. This will illustrate how we are affected by benefits conferred or injuries inflicted by one animal upon another. These sensibilities of ours at least throw some light on our own moral nature. Among birds, the feeding of a mate during the nesting season; among animals generally, care for their young; and in many cases, the storing for winter awaken our admiration. ”

“ What in surface form appears as antipathy to Nature's laws, in deeper significance is sympathy with Nature itself. It is the witness of recoil, for an advance which is not impossible, but is progressing even while we shrink from sight of the procedure, — it is coming through all this suffering which we deplore. Here, as often, the shadow which crosses our spirits helps us to see more readily the brightness still remote. We must learn this lesson of Nature's teaching, — through suffering and through death lies the pathway of progress. ”

“ Beyond all question, it is clear that natural laws provide for "the preservation and prosperity of species": but nature does not provide us with watch-dogs, any more than she provides us with wheel-carriages. ”

“ The consequence for the present argument is obvious; of these two hypotheses, evolution of species, and "animal ethics," we must surrender one. Under this alternative, "animal ethics" disappears as a stepping-stone towards evolution of man. From whatever source we have obtained our conception of justice, it has not come up to us from the animals which know nothing of compromise. ”

“ It disposes the animal to act, as well as fits it for doing so; instinct may even be periodic, as in the nesting season, when we have the singing of birds, in contrast with more advanced summer, when energy goes to something else than song. Everything warns us of our error, if we attribute animal action to moral impulse.
Extending observation to the general laws under which all animal life is placed, we contemplate "gratis benefits to offspring, and earned benefits to adults." ”

“ If animals are to be useful to us in the field of action, we must make them so: we must put into them an aptness unattainable without our guidance, must put into them certain results of our own thought, thus establishing habits which will answer to our call. If, as the result, we begin to see a kind of morality in these animals, we see only a dim reflection of what is in ourselves, and which we have imprinted only for reasons of self-interest. ”

“ It is natural and reasonable that we should turn to animal life itself, to ascertain whether there are traces of the rudiments of ethical distinctions appearing in the conduct of animals. However faint, obscure, and rare the traces may be, we shall find much to interest in the search for them. ”

“ ANIMAL ETHICS AS DESCRIBED BY HERBERT SPENCER.
A LIVING interest attaches to the present attempts to complete an evolution theory. Unfinished work is conspicuous in the realm of morals and of spiritual life. One of two things must result, either these two regions must be annexed, or the limitation of the theory must be admitted. Darwin's work was successfully done, as far as research can be carried in biological science by purely natural history methods. ”

“ To those who take a pessimist view of animal life in general, contemplation of these principles can, of course, yield only dissatisfaction; but to those who take an optimist view, or even a meliorist view, of life in general, and who accept the postulate of hedonism, contemplation of these principles must yield greater or less satisfaction, and fulfilment of them must be ethically approved. ”

“ Thereby, we perceive the inner meaning of Nature as a whole, recognizing an Immanent Deity, ruling and reigning in combinations often bewildering to us, — not unfrequently causing us to shrink with sense of pain. We see the unity of Nature in structure and in history. ”

“ Our sole purpose here is to form an estimate of so-called "animal ethics"; but we linger for a moment to remark that such phenomena as are consequent on human training, are not available in the service of a theory of evolution. ”

“ To Herbert Spencer has fallen by general consent the task of vindicating the hypothesis in higher realms, embracing rational life, with all the grander problems connected with man's place in nature. The temper of the age is favorable for the thinker on whom these responsibilities rest. ”

“ After the gathering of evidence is fairly complete, we shall be able to reach a conclusion on the question of "animal ethics." In any case, we may find here a suitable avenue towards the higher problems of a philosophy of rational life. For we need to learn more fully the ethics of evolution, and specially to ascertain the phases of animal conduct suggesting to the evolutionist traces of the beginnings of moral life. Current popular expressions go heavily against the supposition that animals are responsible for their conduct, as we are ”

“ And this admiration is not restrained because we attribute the actions to instinct, not to intelligent design and sense of duty. On the other hand, our antipathy is roused by actions quite natural to animals, as in the hawk's attack on a linnet, or in the driving off of a competitor, whether food supply is abundant or scanty. ”

“ Thinking differs so essentially from the known functions of organism, that it is impossible to indicate its characteristics without showing how far apart it is from muscular movement, and from life-results which can be secured by supplies of wholesome food, such as sustains bodily vigor. ”

“ These represent two phases of the dependence of animal life, with the double provision nature has made for supply of want. The dependence is on parental care first, on environment next ; the supply is through maternal instinct first, through individual struggle afterwards. The facts are certain, the difficulty is to see "the ethical aspect of the principles." We readily recognize the laws, and, with the aid afforded us by Darwin and his followers, we can trace on a large scale the effects of their application. ”

“ This is true even of birds. "A bird which feeds its mate while she is sitting is regarded with a sentiment of approval." "Egoistic acts, as well as altruistic acts, in animals are classed as good or bad. A squirrel which lays up a store of food for the winter is thought of as doing that which a squirrel ought to do." ”

“ These phenomena are superinduced; they presuppose man's dominion; they belong to a later stage in the history of life — a stage at which a higher life has returned upon the lower, presenting a new departure in natural history. ”

“ But, admitting this to the utmost, the difficulties to be encountered in making out man's place in nature are much greater. Darwin's modes of observation are insufficient here. As long as we can see with our eyes the whole facts to be explained, definite conclusions are more readily reached. ”

“ He has also the advantage of having studied the whole problems of morality from the lower side, having approached them with the belief that all vital movement is an organic whole, advancing by fixed destiny towards the elevations of ethical activity. We can have no better guide to the discovery of the traces of ethical distinctions in animal life, if these are to be found. ”

“ Such are the laws, by conformity to which a species is maintained; and if we assume that the preservation of a particular species is a desideratum, there arises in it an obligation to conform to these laws, which we may call, according to the case in question, quasi-ethical or ethical. ”

“ But we can speak, as Spencer obviously desires to do, of the "meliorist view of life in general," of the steady advance towards better things, and of the large expectation with which a rational life may contemplate Nature's future. ”

“ Impressions from without do not explain our moral life. The most enthusiastic workers in the field of physiological research have failed to make good their contention. The testimony of Clifford is unexceptionable here. ”