John Wesley Powell

“ We may consider the motion of the atom of hydrogen in the atom itself, if it is a compound body as some chemists suppose; then we may consider it in the molecule, then in the tide, then in the earth in rotation, then in the earth-moon body on an axis within the earth, then in the earth in revolution in the solar system, and then in the galaxy with the solar system, and if there be a system of galaxies we may consider it in such body. ”

“ So, in the revolution of the sun and the earth about a common axis, acceleration is chiefly deflection, being positive at perihelion and negative at aphelion. Thus we have a well-known astronomical example of acceleration, and find it deflection and increase or decrease of bodily speed, and now we must refer this acceleration of speed in the body to deflection in the particles of which it is composed. ”

“ In a falling body we observe not only the deflection of terrestrial motion, but the falling body itself is composed of molecules and atoms which are in motion, and the earth also is composed of molecules and atoms in motion, and these paths are also deflected by the falling of the body. ”

“ Every particle has constant motion as speed which cannot be increased or diminished, and the absurdity of perpetual motion should be called the absurdity of perpetual collision between two bodies without other deflection. The particles collide because of impinging paths; they are deflected and their paths are turned apart, and they cannot be made to collide again until other external collisions bring their paths together. If the particle A is deflected after one collision, to be once more deflected, another collision is necessary. ”

“ We now know that waves, not fluids, are transmitted in the case of heat and light, and in a like manner gravity as deflection must be considered as wave action or vibration in some form. With these principles the instantaneous action of gravity is simple and self-evident, for speed is not transmitted, but only deflection is caused. ”

“ The deflection of their terrestrial motion is but the reciprocal of their deflection in molecular motion. When a body, say of water, loses heat it gains the strength of structure, which is a force, and hence a mode of motion which it exhibits as ice. The body does not transmit its speed of particle to another body, but only induces a corresponding change in that other body from solid strength or rigidity to heat motion by deflecting molecular paths. Thus motion as speed cannot be dissipated. ”

“ Assuming that force is motion and gravity force, then if the particle can lose any of its speed it can lose gravity, which is absurd; and if in the collision of a body speed is transferred from its particles to the particles of another body, then the other body must weigh more, which also is absurd ”

“ Motion as speed is constant in the particle. The particle, of whatever order it may be in the members of the hierarchy, is accelerated by deflecting its particles. The principles or laws of dynamics are all corollaries of this fundamental law; hence dynamics may be taught as a deductive science. Thus we have the mathematics of number, the mathematics of space, and the mathematics of motion, all fundamentally deductive sciences. ”

“ That which we call acceleration pertains wholly to deflection, or in very small part to speed, as loss of speed by one and gain by another.
There is still another set of relations to be considered. A body is composed of particles; in order that they should remain within the sphere of the body their paths must be composite, and in order that their paths may be composite there must be a sufficient number of internal collisions to deflect them and retain them within that sphere. If the body itself is moved the paths of the several particles in the average must thus be rendered less composite ”

“ It must clearly be understood that the above argument does not deny that molar motion as speed can be created or destroyed; it simply affirms that molar motion cannot be created from nothing, and that it cannot be annihilated, but that it comes from molecular motion and returns to molecular motions. ”

“ A division of an army may be maneuvering in a field as divisions, brigades, regiments, battalions, companies, and platoons, and yet remain in the same field enclosed by a wall; without walking the individual men with any greater speed you may march them to another twenty miles away, and they will lie down to rest at night with no less fatigue than if they had been maneuvering in the enclosed field.
In the same manner the molecules of the wooden ball are in motion within the theater of the ball, so that they do not pass beyond its boundaries ”

“ There is no star that does not proceed on this journey, nor is there any body of matter in the earth which does not proceed with the earth in its journey. Ethereal matter does not seem to proceed in this manner from position to position throughout the universe, but the motion of each particle seems to be confined to an environment of other particles, and vibrates back and forth or around and around within its narrow environment. ”

“ A body of men walking in a circle remain together as a body within the circumference of the circle as it moves with the earth; change their paths to a cycloid directed to a distant point, and the body of men will move away in that direction; change their paths to parallel right lines, and as a body they may soon be a mile away and still in a circle. ”

“ In an ethereal medium of particles moving with a persistent speed, two bodies will mutually intercept collisions with the ethereal medium inversely proportional to the square of their distance apart, which is an explanation of the law of gravity, and is the theory of La Sage in terms of motion. ”

“ Then we consider that particles may be incorporated in a body with their several particles revolving around a common center, and this revolution of the particles is rotation of the body. Thus by incorporation the motions of particles may be correlated by rotation and revolution, as exhibited in celestial bodies. ”

“ A citizen of a township must obey the laws of the township. The same person is also a citizen of the county subject to the laws of the county, a citizen of the state subject to the laws of the state, a citizen of the United States subject to the laws of the United States, and finally he is a citizen of the world, subject to international law. ”