Edward Arthur Dawe

“ From the foregoing list and descriptions it can be seen that papermakers have a variety of fibres at their command, and it is by selecting, sometimes by blending, fibres of different characteristics, that the manufacture of the large variety of papers is possible. Some of the demands made by the world of paper users are for papers which are very strong or very soft, absorbent, resistant to grease or water, very light, very dense, and the selection of the fibres and their treatment call for special knowledge and skill on the part of the papermaker. ”

“ Common sense will prevent the mistake which is still perpetrated of printing a half-tone block on a laid paper, or a paper with a heavy watermark. The laid lines and the watermark show up through the half-tone impression and spoil the picture. Half-tone work demands a perfectly smooth paper, coated or a good super-calendered paper being the best.
Very few papers are identical in finish on both sides of the sheet, and it should be the first thing taught to the apprentice that all one-sided work should be printed on the right side of the paper. ”

“ A number of girls rapidly examine every sheet of paper, withdrawing those sheets which fall below the papermaker's standard of perfection, sorting into retree and broke proceeding as in the case of hand-made papers. Counting, cutting, and packing take place very quickly after the paper is sorted. The nimble fingers of the counters turn up the edge of a quantity of paper, the fingers of the other hand run down the edges quickly, counting into reams with extraordinary accuracy. Some papers are trimmed before packing, while others are cut from double to single sheets. ”

“ The deterioration of paper may be by discoloration only, or disintegration may also occur. Discoloration may be caused simply by the action of the atmosphere, and is to be seen in the margins of books and in coloured papers. The outer margins of books are more susceptible to oxidation than the interior, and in gaslit rooms most books will in time suffer from discoloured margins. Chemical residues from the manufacturing processes, if left in the paper, will bring about changes in colour, engine-sized papers being more liable to change than papers which are tub-sized. ”

“ In various coated papers sheets with uneven coating or surface markings should not be included as "good" paper. A paper which is even in texture cannot be considered matched by a supply which is "wild" or cloudy in the look-through. Although wildness is sometimes accompanied by strength in paper, this is not always so, and it is desirable that printing papers should not be wild.
To analyse papers in order to discover chemical residues and to identify them requires some very delicate tests, and unless one has had an extensive chemical training, mistaken conclusions may result. ”

“ The mould of hand-made papers receives a shake each way, felting the fibres evenly. The machine wire receives a side-shake which is only effective for a short period—as long as the pulp is in a state of suspension—and as soon as the water has drained away the shake ceases to take effect, consequently the majority of the fibres are parallel to the direction of the flow of the pulp. Some fibres are crossed or felted; but taking the web of paper, it is more easily pulled apart across its width than in the direction of its length. ”

“ Expansion, or stretching as it is usually termed, is caused by absorption of moisture by the finished paper from the atmosphere. The atmosphere always contains some moisture, the amount varying not only from day to day, but from hour to hour. When there is an excess of moisture in the air, as on wet days or when fogs occur, paper will readily absorb the extra moisture, and the absorption will be accompanied by expansion of the sheet, principally across the web, or as it is generally termed, in the cross direction. ”

“ The purposes of loading are to fill the spaces between the fibres, to give opacity to papers, such as those made of sulphite wood pulp, which would otherwise be very transparent, and to enable the paper to take a higher finish than would be possible in a paper without loading: a smoother and more absorbent, even if a little weaker, sheet, resulting. In a blotting paper mineral matter is an adulteration; in writing papers 5 per cent, is sufficient for improvement of surface; in printings 10 to 16 per cent, is as much as is permissible. ”

“ China clay, having no cohesion, does not assist in felting the paper in any way, but tends to weaken its resistance to wear. That weakness or tenderness is one feature of imitation art papers. After leaving the paper machine the paper is super-calendered, receiving a water finish, that is, the paper is just wetted on the surface immediately before entering the rolls of the calender. The loading is thus brought to the surface, and a very smooth level sheet is produced, only a little inferior, as a printing surface, to art paper. ”

“ Therefore in order to form an opinion as to the quantity of starch used, a very pale solution must be used, or the colour may be too dark to enable one to make comparisons. An aqueous extract of the paper may be treated with the iodine solution, and if a comparative test is to be made, it is necessary to work on each paper with identical quantities of water for boiling, and iodine solution for testing. A faint colour must not be taken as evidence of added starch, as in rag pulp it is very difficult to remove starch from the raw materials. ”

“ Rags are the cast-off fabrics of the civilised world. Having served their purpose in administering to the comfort of mankind, they are sorted, graded, and offered in the market for papermakers. For the manufacture of paper for bank-notes new linen cuttings are used, but this is an exceptional material for a special purpose. Sail cloth, bagging, sacking and ropes, made from hemp, jute, manilla hemp, having reached the waste market, are regenerated in the mill as paper. Waste paper of all kinds is sorted and re-made into paper or boards. ”

“ It is not always easy to persuade the consumer to select the very best paper for office stationery, but the choice should be made with a view to create a good impression. Remember always, too, that printing demands good paper to produce the most satisfactory effect.
For lithography the work in hand frequently dictates the quality of paper to be used. Offset printing, certainly, has enabled the lithographer to print on papers unsuitable for direct stone printing, but in all work the right paper produces the best result. ”

“ There is considerable variety in printing papers, as regards fibre, sizing, and surface. As generally understood, printings are papers of good colour, not too hard-sized, of good surface, even in texture, fairly opaque, showing a clear look-through, free from specks and spots. The fibrous composition will depend largely upon the price. An all-rag paper is a splendid white paper, soft to print upon, pleasant to handle, very durable, and a type of moderate colour printed with a good black ink gives a very rich appearance on such paper. ”

“ The constituents of paper, as shown in the first chapter, are vegetable fibres, mineral filling, colouring matter, and vegetable or animal sizing. The fibres producing the paper which approximates most nearly to a pure cellulose material, with the minimum of chemical and mechanical treatment, are, of course, the best possible. Classified with that in view, cotton, flax, hemp, chemical wood, esparto, and mechanical wood is the order of merit. Cotton is, more than any other material, the ideal fibre. ”

“ Cylinder machines are invariably used for duplex, triplex, and boards of several layers other than paste boards and those already described. Instead of a travelling wire, a wire-covered cylinder is the means of forming the film of pulp. The cylinder revolves in a vat of pulp, takes up a thin layer of the fibre, and, pressing against a travelling felt, leaves its film of paper, and as there are several cylinders, each in its own vat, producing paper in the same way, the several webs are brought together, rolled, dried, and reeled. ”

“ Early English papers were made from rag fibres, and rag papers still hold the premier place.
Cellulose is the substance of which the permanent cell membranes of plants are composed, and it forms the bulk of the tissues of wood and similar plant structures. In most cases the presence of colouring matter and various waxy and resinous substances taken up by the growing plant render the cellulose very impure, and it is desirable that, as far as possible, all impurities should be removed before the fibres are made into paper. Cotton is the purest form of cellulose found in nature, 91 per cent. ”

“ The engine is emptied by gravity into the stuff-chest, where the revolving arms keep the fibres in the mixture from precipitation. Then there is a short journey to the machine, during which the pulp undergoes great tribulation, first being diluted with a large quantity of water, then passing over sand traps which intercept grit, metallic fragments, and such matter that is heavier than the pulp and so tends to sink, and then through strainers, which retain foreign matter, unbeaten particles, and knots of fibre. ”

“ The coucher who places the paper upon the felts ready for pressing, or couching, stands to the left of and facing the vatman. He takes the mould, stands it at an angle to drain, and places the mould face downwards upon a felt; the paper remains on the felt, and the mould is returned to the vatman. The felts are woollen cloths of close texture, resembling that of machine blankets, and are larger than the paper placed upon them.
Upon each sheet of paper a third worker places a felt, and the papermaking proceeds. ”

“ When it is remembered that the papermaking fibres may expand in diameter to the extent of 20 per cent., but only one per cent, in length, it will be seen that the expansion will show itself chiefly in one direction, for the majority of fibres lie side by side. Fortunately the full expansion does not take place. Paper which is properly matured contains water equal to 7 per cent. of its weight. Without this moisture, paper would be brittle, and when this amount is exceeded the paper expands. But paper, as it leaves the calender rolls of the paper machine, contains less than 7 per cent. ”

“ When judging paper or cards it must always be remembered that a sheet may compare very badly with a small piece, therefore when making comparisons the sizes of the samples of paper or card should be cut to the same size. Only by adopting this practice can weight, colour, and texture be judged accurately. ”

“ A photographic printing frame with a black disc on plain glass is a convenient method of testing, and if, after forty-eight hours in summer, and a proportionately longer period at other times, the difference between the exposed and protected areas is marked, the paper must not be used where a permanent colour is required. Some tints will bleach completely with the treatment, and should be avoided as stock lines. To test water-fastness a piece of paper is left in warm water, or placed in cold water and heated slowly. If the colour is soluble it will very soon tint the water. ”

“ Sulphite papers tend to be harsh and transparent, but a mixture of soda pulp partly counteracts these faults, and even if it is not quite as soft as an esparto mixture, excellent results in printing can be obtained if the fibres have been carefully beaten and blended. Papers containing mechanical wood are classed as common printings, and are suitable only for common work. A small proportion of mechanical wood may not be noticeable in the finished paper, but when a large proportion is used, greyness of colour and poorness of appearance are sure indications of the low quality of the material. ”

“ Electricity in paper causes delay in feeding, the sheets sticking together, necessitating an undue use of the cylinder stop. As the paper is reeled at the end of the papermaking machine, electric sparks are frequently to be observed, owing to the electricity generated by friction of the dry paper. A large quantity of the electricity is extracted, but some thin papers with high surface will retain a fair amount, and sheets cling together. Paper which has been exposed for maturing will not give this trouble, and thick papers, even if electrified, do not usually call for special treatment. ”

“ A smooth writing surface, free from spots and other imperfections, is required, but the cards should be easy to rule and print. It is impossible to manipulate successfully cockled or wavy boards in ruling, printing, or cutting, so time will be saved if the selection of boards for index cards is made from the kinds which can be obtained perfectly flat. The softer kinds of pulp boards are excellent for a great deal of advertising matter, folders, post-cards, and for jobs for which something stouter than the usual tinted papers is required. ”

“ For machine-made papers the addition of a small proportion enables them to take a very good finish. The amount of china clay present in the finished paper should not exceed 10 per cent, of the total weight.
Hand-made and mould-made printings are tub-sized and plate-rolled, without giving a high glaze to the paper. Machine-made printings are engine-sized, hard or soft according to the use to which the paper is to be put, and sometimes the surface will govern the sizing, some papers being hard-sized and super-calendered, others soft-sized and with only machine finish. ”

“ In a printing office where small quantities of paper are dealt with, the inconvenience of carrying paper in and out a few reams at a time may not be apparent, but considerable time is wasted and some loss in spoiled sheets results from such a method. Quantities of paper should be dealt with as expeditiously, and with as little handling, as possible. Transporter trucks require, perhaps, more room than is taken by a man or boy lifting reams, but it deals with thirty reams, instead of two at a time, and in up-to-date offices time is counted as valuable as currency. ”

“ Papermaking by hand involves the processes of transferring a certain and regular quantity of pulp from the vat to the mould, shaking the mould to felt the fibres and to remove the water, couching the paper and drying the waterleaf. Machine-made paper follows the same processes exactly, everything being done by the one machine, including sizing. ”

“ Writing and most printing papers, which may or may not be printed in more than one colour, are frequently cut two ways of the webs, that is, a 30 by 40 inch paper, if cut from a web of 70 inches net width, is cut without waste by cutting sheets 30 inches wide from one part and 40-inch sheets from the remainder of the reel. All papers on which register work is to be printed must be cut with the same machine direction. ”