C. C. Long

“ DEW, CLOUDS, AND RAIN.
The sun is all the time heating the water on the land and in the sea, and changing it into vapor, which rises in the air. We cannot see the vapor; but it is in the air around us.
If the vapor in the air is suddenly cooled, a strange thing happens. Some of it quickly changes back into water. You have often seen, in the early morning, little drops of water hanging like pearls upon the blades of grass. ”

“ Some clothes are made from cotton; cotton grows in the pod of a plant. Some clothes are made from linen; linen comes from flax, which is a plant. Hats are made from straw; straw is the stem or stalk of plants.
Now, these plants, which supply us with so much of our food and clothing, do not grow of themselves.
The ground must be plowed, the seeds planted and taken care of while growing. So, outside the city, you may see a great many people at work raising grain, vegetables, and other plants. This occupation we call agriculture or farming; the people we call farmers. ”

“ Parts of the land very much higher than the surrounding country are called mountains. Mountains are much higher than hills. Have you ever seen a steeple one hundred feet high? A mountain is as high as twenty such steeples, one on the top of the other. How high the mountains must be!
Some mountains reach away above the clouds. Their white tops seem to touch the sky. A man on the summit of one saw the clouds beneath his feet, while the sun shone where he stood. ”

“ In mountains, too, we find iron, which is more useful to us than gold and silver.
To get these, thousands of men are at work in places called mines. A mine is like a great cavern. There is neither sun nor sky. Torches and lamps give the only light the miners have to see by. The air is damp and close. I suppose you would not like to work in such a place. Yet great numbers of persons are employed in mining.
How is coal taken out of a mine? What are the dangers of coal-mining? Try to find answers to these questions for yourself. If necessary, your teacher will help you. ”

“ We need many things which we do not produce. Other people need things which they do not produce. How can each obtain what he needs? By exchanging one thing for another. This exchange of goods, or buying and selling them for money; gives rise to another occupation called trade, or commerce. So many people spend their time buying and selling grain, vegetables, clothing, boots and shoes, or in sending them to places where they are needed.
On all the large rivers and lakes you may see boats going up and down, carrying goods from one part of the country to another. ”

“ Yes, hills and mountains are of very great use. They make the earth more beautiful. Tops of high mountains are so cold that they turn the clouds into drops of water which fall as rain or snow. Then mountains give rise to rivers which make the valleys beautiful with grass and flowers. Mountains do much good to some countries by keeping off cold winds. They also give us coal and iron and other minerals which we find so useful. ”

“ There is a plant that yields no food, drink, or clothing, yet it is used in nearly every country in the world. Can you tell its name?
Every one has seen it growing. It is tobacco.
Do you think the tobacco plant is as useful as the cotton and flax plants?
Everybody eats sugar. Did you ever see a table set for supper without a sugar bowl?
The sugar in common use in this country is made chiefly from sugar-cane. The sugar-cane is a tall plant which looks much like Indian corn when growing. It is called the sugar-cane because it is filled with the sweet juice that is made into the sugar. ”

“ All around are illustrations of lake and river, upland and lowland, slope and valley. These forms must be actually observed by the pupil, mental pictures obtained, in order that he may be enabled to build up in his mind other mental pictures of similar unseen forms. The hill that he climbs each day may, by an appeal to his imagination, represent to him the lofty Andes or the Alps. From the meadow, or the bit of level land near the door, may be developed a notion of plain and prairie. ”

“ When there are heavy rains, the rushing water sweeps large stones down the mountain side and into the valley. As they are carried down the stream, the stones, by rubbing against each other, are smoothed and rounded and ground into pebbles. The pebbles themselves are ground at last into gravel and fine sand.
This is what the streams are doing everywhere--plowing deep furrows in the sides of the mountains, grinding the pebbles and sand into fine soil, and carrying it into the valleys below. ”

“ If clouds are cooled, the little particles of water gather into large drops and fall as rain. If the drops should freeze in falling, we would call them hail.
What shape are the raindrops? Of what use is the rain?
Sometimes, when it is very cold, the moisture in the air freezes before it forms into drops, and falls in the beautiful flakes we call snow. Have you ever seen snowflakes through a microscope?
Snow keeps the roots of plants warm. Many plants would die in winter if it were not for the snow. What other uses has snow? ”

“ How does a sailor find the north?
If you were lost and knew your home was north, how would you find it? Do you know how hunters and Indians who live a great deal in the woods find out where the north is? When you are in the woods, notice the amount of moss on the north side of trees as compared to that on the south side.
As winter approaches; many of our birds will want to go to a warmer country; in what direction will they fly? ”

“ As vapor rises into high, cool air, or is carried with the air in winds up the sides of mountains, it turns into water again, and comes falling down as rain.
Now think where the rain that falls on mountains must go. Some of the water runs off on the surface, down the mountain slope. Some sinks into the ground, and runs along in little streams below the surface. It will appear again, bubbling out of the mountain side as a spring. The spring is the beginning of a river. ”

“ If you think, perhaps you can tell why men do different kinds of work. What people do to make a living, depends very much upon the place they live in. For men almost always do that kind of work that pays them best for their labor.
Those who live where the land is rich and level will raise grain to make flour, or cotton and flax to make clothing. Some people among the mountains work in the mines. ”

“ In the country, yon may see flocks of sheep and herds of cows and oxen feeding on the fresh sweet grass of the pastures. Those animals are called stock. The business of those who raise them is called stock-raising.
Most farmers raise cows, horses, and other animals. Which land does the farmer use for pasture? What is a pasture? What is a meadow?
Grazing means feeding on grass. What animals have you seen grazing? Does a dog graze? A cow?
Mountains, so rough and rocky, are not good for farms and gardens. But many of them contain coal, on which millions of people depend for heat and light. ”

“ The way to a place is called direction. In order to find a place, we must know in what direction from us it lies, and we have names for directions, such as north, south, east, and west. We may know these directions by seeing where the sun is. ”

“ Silver and gold are found among the mountains in the west. Sometimes they are dug out of the ground. Sometimes they are found in rocks, and the rocks must be broken up before they can be taken out.
Sometimes men wash down the hills with streams of water in order to get at the silver or gold among the rocks.
Gold and silver are called the precious metals because they do not rust, and on account of their scarcity.
Tin is white and bright, but too soft to make articles which shall be light and strong. Therefore, thin plates of iron are dipped into melted tin. ”

“ An island, as we have learned, is a piece of land with water all round it. Now, sometimes we see a piece of land that has water nearly all round it. This form of land is called a peninsula. The word peninsula means almost an island.
How would you change this peninsula to an island? What is the difference between a peninsula and an island?
The narrow neck which joins the peninsula to other land--just as the neck joins the head to the body-is called an isthmus, which means neck. ”

“ Great clouds of fine sand are lifted into the air--clouds which darken the sun! Travelers must at once jump from their camels, cover themselves with their cloaks, and lie flat on the ground.
The poor beasts will close their eyes and nostrils, and kneel with their backs to the wind until the storm has passed over.
Thankful will the travelers be if none of them are buried in the sand.
LESSON XII.
HILLS, MOUNTAINS, VALLEYS.
The land is not always level like a plain. In some places it is high and uneven. We all know what a hill is. It is land a little higher than the surrounding country. ”

“ Can you think how goods are carried from place to place where there are no rivers? In countries where few people live, goods are often carried in wagons and on the backs of animals.
I wonder how many people have to work to get food and clothing for us. ”

“ The line winding about, like the stream itself, represents a river. The line, as you see, is made thicker and thicker toward its mouth. From this you may know that the river itself becomes broader and broader as it flows toward the sea.
But you must not think that the crooked line on the map is a river, or the lines which face each other are mountains. ”

“ Animals, as well as plants, furnish much of our food. All meat comes from animals. We get milk from cows. From milk we make butter and cheese.
Animals also supply us with clothing. Many articles of dress are made of wool. Wool, you know, grows on the sheep. Shoes and kid gloves are made of leather. Leather is made from the hides of cows ”

“ Trying to fashion the hills and valleys with which he is familiar excites his interest, and leads to closer observation. This may be followed by the reproduction in molder's sand, or in clay, of the forms seen in pictures or learned from description. Definitions of the various forms, hill, mountain, valley, island, etc., should be developed as they are molded. The memorizing of definitions should seldom be required, and should never be made a test of the pupil's knowledge. ”

“ LESSON XLV.
A REVIEW LESSON.
What kind of work is done by the people among whom you live? Are they farmers? How does the farmer make his living? Where does he sell the things which he raises? Where does he buy his sugar and tea and other things which he needs?
Do you live in a city? What are the chief occupations of the people? Do they work in shops or mills or factories?
Name some mills or factories in or near your city. What articles are made there? What manufactured articles are in the schoolroom? At home? What do you call the men who make these articles? ”

“ All that should be sought is to get the pupil thoughtfully to observe, and thus to awaken his interest in the world about him.
Lessons should be conversational in form, which is always a most pleasing style for children, as it is the most natural. The work of the teacher is to awaken and stimulate interest, not to impart information. The attention of the child should be directed to what lies around him. He must observe, and think, and express his thoughts. ”

“ Some keep cows for their milk and butter, and sheep for their wool; for the hills and many of the mountain sides afford excellent pasture. People who live near the sea will be apt to catch fish along the coast, or engage in trade upon the water. ”

“ Sometimes we see leaves and grass sparkle with water-drops, early in the morning, When the sun shines out and warms the air; what happens?
Why does vapor rise into the air?
Why does smoke go up? Because it is lighter than air. As vapor is lighter than air ”

“ Information concerning plants may be gained by outdoor study; also by planting seeds in boxes and having pupils carefully watch their germination and growth.
Pupils should be encouraged to make collections of the minerals and rocks of their region. These should be classified and arranged for use, not for show.
The lessons about rain, snow, dew, etc., should be given at appropriate times. A wet day will suggest a lesson on rain, a snowy day a lesson about snow. No attempt should be made at "science" teaching, so-called. ”

“ Other rills meet this, and form a larger stream, which is called a brook or creek.
As the brook flows on, it is joined by other streams, until, little by little, it becomes a wide and deep river on which large boats may float. At last, it finds its way into the ocean.
Where a river begins is its source. The place where it flows into another body of water is called its mouth. The land over which it flows is its bed.
A river has two banks. As we go toward its mouth, the right bank is on our right hand, and the left bank is on our left. ”

“ Copper is softer than iron, but harder than lead. It will not rust. Cooking vessels are often made of copper.
Zinc is another valuable metal, and is almost the color of tin. Brass is made by mixing copper and zinc together. ”

“ What kinds of food are best in cold countries? What people live mainly on fish and the flesh of animals? Do any fruit trees grow in very cold countries?
What kinds of food are best in hot countries? The people cannot eat fatty food, for that would heat the body. Do we find in such countries grain, vegetables and cooling fruits for the people to live upon?
Write answers to some of the questions asked in the lesson, so as to make a composition about fruits.
LESSON XXXII.
USEFUL PLANTS.
What plant supplies us with much of our clothing? Name articles of clothing made of cotton. ”