Raphael Meldola

“ Summing up the uses of coal thus far considered, we see that this mineral is being consumed as fuel, for the production of coke, for the manufacture of gas, and in many other ways. Lavishly as Nature has provided us with this source of power and wealth, the idea naturally suggests itself whether we are not drawing too liberally upon our capital. The question of coal supply crops up from time to time, and the public mind is periodically agitated about the prospects of its continuance. How long we have been draining our coal resources it is difficult to ascertain. ”

“ If a pound of carbon in burning to carbon dioxide gives out heat equivalent to eleven million foot-pounds of work, we must apply the same amount of work to the carbon dioxide produced to separate it into its constituents. Neither a plant nor any living thing can create energy any more than it can create matter, and just as the matter composing a living organism is assimilated from external sources, so must we look to an external source for the energy which enables the plant to do this large amount of chemical work. ”

“ But even with the most perfectly conceivable constructed engine it has been proved that we can only expect one-sixth of the total energy of the fuel to appear in the form of work, and in a very good steam-engine of the present time we only realize in the form of useful work about one-tenth of the whole quantity of energy contained in the coal. Although steam power is one of the most useful agencies that science has placed at the disposal of man, it is not generally recognized by the uninitiated how wasteful we are of Nature’s resources. ”

“ Consider the enormous gain in weight during the growth of a plant; compare the acorn, weighing a few grains, with the oak, weighing many tons, which arises from it after centuries of growth. If matter is indestructible, and never comes into existence spontaneously, where does all this carbon come from? It is a matter of common knowledge that the carbon of plants is supplied by the atmosphere in the form of carbon dioxide—the gas which has already been referred to as resulting from the combustion of carbon. ”

“ Imagine the industrial revolution which would be caused by the discovery of a process for obtaining indigo synthetically from a coal-tar hydrocarbon, at a price which would compare favourably with that of the natural product. This has not actually been done as yet, but chemists have attempted to compete with Nature in this direction, and the present state of the competition is that the natural product can be cultivated and made more cheaply. ”

“ The different forms of energy can be converted into one another, such, for example, as chemical energy into heat or electricity, heat into mechanical work or electricity, electricity into heat, and so forth, but the relationship between these convertible forms is fixed and invariable. From a given quantity of chemical energy represented, let us say, by a certain weight of coal, we can get a certain fixed amount of heat and no more. We can employ that heat to work a steam-engine, which we can in turn use as a source of electricity by causing it to drive a dynamo-machine. ”

“ The separation of carbon from oxygen in the plant is effected by means of energy supplied by the sun. The great white hot globe which is the centre of our system, and round which this earth and the planets are moving, is a reservoir from which there is constantly pouring forth into space a prodigious quantity of energy. It must be remembered that the sun is more than a million times greater in bulk than our earth. It has been calculated by Sir William Thomson that every square foot of the sun’s surface is radiating energy equivalent to 7000 horse-power in work. ”

“ To get at the origin of the familiar fuel which blazes in our grates with such lavish waste of heat, and pollutes the atmosphere of our towns with its unconsumed particles, we must in imagination travel backwards through the course of time to a very remote period of the world’s history. ”

“ A manure, chemically considered, is a mixture of substances capable of supplying the necessary nitrogenous and mineral food for the nourishment of the growing plant. The ordinary farm or stable manure contains decomposing nitrogenous organic matter, in which the nitrogen is given off as ammonia, and thus furnishes the soil with which it is mixed with the necessary fertilizer. But the supply of this manure is limited, and we have to fall back upon gas-liquor and native nitrates to meet the existing wants of the agriculturist. ”

“ Before passing on to the consideration of the different products which we get from coal, it will be desirable to discuss a little more fully the nature of the change which occurs during the transformation of wood into coal. Pure woody fibre consists of a substance known to chemists as cellulose, which contains fifty per cent. of carbon, the remainder of the compound being made up of hydrogen and oxygen. It is thus obvious that during the fossilization of the wood some of the other constituents are lost, and the percentage of carbon by this means raised. ”

“ It has long been known in photography, that a developer must be of the nature of a reducing agent, either inorganic or organic, and many hydroxylic and amidic derivatives of hydrocarbons come under this category. Thus, pyrogallol, which has already been referred to as a trihydroxybenzene (p. 146) , when dissolved in alkali rapidly absorbs oxygen—it is a strong reducing agent, and is thus of value as a developer. But although pyrogallol is a benzene derivative, and could if necessary be prepared synthetically, it can hardly be claimed as a tar product, as it is generally made from gallic acid. ”

“ In other words, we might have had to wait till 1965 to reach our present state of knowledge concerning the theory of benzenoid compounds if the coal-tar industry had not been in existence. And this is not the only way in which the industry has helped the science, for in the course of manufacture many new compounds and many new chemical transformations have been incidentally discovered, which have thrown great light on chemical theory. From the higher standpoint of pure science, the industry has therefore deservedly won a most exalted position. ”

“ If there are natural colouring-matters which are fast and which are æsthetically orthodox, these are rivalled by tar-products which fulfil the same conditions. Such dyes as aniline black, alizarin blue, anthracene brown, tartrazine, some of the azo-reds and naphthol green resist the influence of light as well as, if not better than, any natural colouring-matter. The artificial yellow dyes are as a whole faster than the natural yellows. There are at the present time some three hundred coal-tar colouring-matters made, and about one-tenth of that number of natural dyes are in use. ”

“ The heat which is given out during combustion represents the chemical energy stored up in the combustible, for combustion is in fact the chemical union of one substance with another with the development of heat and light. When carbon burns in air, therefore, a chemical combination takes place, the air supplying the other substance with which the carbon combines. ”

“ Coal-gas is burnt [Pg 57] just as it is delivered from the mains—it is not at present utilized as a source of raw material in the sense that the tar is thus made use of. In some cases gas is used as fuel, as in gas-stoves and gas-engines, and in the so-called “gas-producers,” in which the coal, instead of being used as a direct source of heat, is partially burnt in suitable furnaces, and the combustible gas thus arising, consisting chiefly of carbon monoxide, is conveyed to the place where it undergoes complete combustion, and is thus utilized as a source of heat. ”

“ If instead of heating coal in contact with air and allowing it to burn, we heat it in a closed vessel, such as a retort, it undergoes decomposition with the formation of various gaseous, liquid, and solid products. This process of heating an organic compound in a closed vessel without access of air and collecting the products, is called destructive distillation. The tobacco-pipe experiment of our boyhood is our first practical introduction to the destructive distillation of coal. ”

“ If energy is indestructible, we have a right to inquire in the next place from whence the coal has derived this enormous store. A consideration of the origin of coal, and of its chemical composition, will enable this question to be answered. The origin of coal has already been discussed. Chemically considered, it consists chiefly of carbon together with smaller quantities of hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, and a certain amount of mineral matter which is left as ash when the coal is burnt. ”

“ Then this doctrine of science teaches us that our given weight of coal in burning evolves a quantity of heat which is the equivalent of the chemical energy which it contains, and that this quantity of heat has also its equivalent in mechanical work or in electricity. ”

“ The enormous advancement which has taken place of late years in the industrial applications of electricity has given rise to the belief that coal-gas will in time become superseded as an illuminating agent, and that the supply of tar may in consequence fall off. So far, however, the introduction of electric-lighting has had no appreciable effect upon the consumption of gas, and even when the time of general electric-lighting arrives there will arise as a consequence an increased demand for gas as a fuel in gas engines. ”

“ From surgery back to colouring-matters, and from these to pharmaceutical preparations and perfumes, are we led in following up the cycles of chemical transformation which these tar-products have undergone in the hands of the technologist, guided by the researches of the chemist. It was observed by Runge in 1834 that crude carbolic acid, on treatment with lime, gave a red, acid colouring-matter which he separated and named “rosolic acid.” The observation was followed up, and many other chemists obtained red colouring-matters by the oxidation of crude phenol. ”

“ Just as the mechanical skill of the engineer enables him to construct an engine out of the raw material iron, which is extracted from its ore, and converted into steel by chemical processes, so the skill of the chemist enables him to build up complex colouring-matters, &c., out of the raw materials furnished by tar, which is obtained from coal by chemical decomposition.
The illuminating gas which is obtained from coal by destructive distillation consists chiefly of hydrogen and gaseous hydrocarbons, the most abundant of the latter being marsh gas. ”

“ When oxygen and carbon unite under the conditions described, the product is an invisible gas known as carbon dioxide, and it is because this gas is invisible that the carbon seems to disappear altogether on combustion. In reality, however, the carbon is not lost, for matter is as indestructible as energy, but it is converted into the dioxide which escapes as gas under ordinary circumstances. ”

“ The transition from carbon dioxide to woody fibre is brought about in the plant by a series of chemical processes, and through the formation of a number of intermediate products in a manner which is not yet thoroughly understood; but since carbon dioxide consists of carbon and oxygen, and since plants feed upon carbon dioxide, appropriating the carbon and giving off the oxygen as a waste product, it is certain that work of some kind must be performed. ”

“ For in the first place, we could not collect all the heat given out, because a great deal is communicated to the products of combustion by which it is absorbed, and locked up in a form that renders it incapable of measurement by our thermometers. In the next place, if we make an allowance for the quantity of heat which thus disappears, even then the corrected calorific power converted into its mechanical equivalent would not express the quantity of work practically obtainable from the coal. ”

“ While the electrician is pushing forward with rapid strides, the chemist is also moving onwards, and every year witnesses the discovery of new tar products, or the utilization of constituents which were formerly of little or no value. Thus if the cost of generating and distributing electricity is being lowered, on the other hand the value of coal tar is likely to go on advancing, and it would be rash to predict which will come out triumphant in the end. ”

“ The conclusion to which we have now been led leaves us with the question as to the origin of the energy of coal still unanswered. We shall have to go a step further before this part of our story is complete, and we must form some kind of idea of the way in which a plant grows. Carbon being the chief source of energy in coal, we may for the present confine ourselves to this element, of which woody fibre contains about 50 per cent. ”

“ There is a widely-spread idea that these colours are fugitive—that they rub off, that they fade on exposure to light, that they wash out, and, in short, that they are in every way inferior to the old wood or vegetable dyes. These charges are unfounded. One of the best refutations is, that two of the oldest and fastest of natural colouring-matters, viz. alizarin and indigo, are coal-tar products. There are some coal-tar dyes which are not fast to light, and [Pg 199] there are many vegetable dyes which are equally fugitive. ”

“ Similarly, the replacement of hydrogen by a water-residue, hydroxyl, gives rise to a phenol. The group of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen atoms which confers the property of acidity upon an organic compound is a half-molecule of oxalic acid—it is known as the carboxyl group. Thus benzoic acid is the carboxyl-derivative of benzene, and the phthalic acid with which we are now concerned is a dicarboxyl-derivative of benzene. It is related to benzoic acid in the same way that diamidobenzene is related to aniline. ”