Apollo program

“ Chapman, Richard L. Project Management in NASA: The System and the Men. Washington, DC: NASA SP-324, 1973. Based on almost 150 interviews and contributions by NASA officials, this slight and somewhat uncritical study does provide a useful look at NASA's project management system that contributed significantly to the success of the Apollo program. Although far from a definitive treatment, this volume provides useful information on management within NASA during the Apollo era, even though it does not focus specifically on Apollo. ”

“ BUILDING upon the legacy of the Apollo program, which benefited all of humankind, the Artemis program will land the first woman and next man on the surface of the Moon and establish, together with international and commercial partners, the sustainable human exploration of the solar system ”

“ This thoughtful discussion of the development of the U.S. space program emphasizes the role of the frontier and the exploration imperative in the United States. Sidey, an extremely articulate commentator, suggests that nothing worthwhile is gained without sacrifice. This was a response to the naysayers of the space program after the January 1986 Challenger accident but emphasizes the 1961 Apollo decision of President Kennedy as the quintessential statement of a vision of exploring the unknown. ”

“ NASA's truly spectacular achievements in space science, earth resources monitoring, geodesy, and weather analysis have gone comparatively unnoticed." Roland believes that NASA should invest its limited budgets since Apollo in less expensive but more productive automated missions instead of ones carrying humans. Not everyone will agree with this assessment, but it represents one knowledgeable scholars perception of the effect of Apollo on NASA management. ”

“ This and related efforts were critical in increasing public belief in the possibility of reaching the Moon, although it took the launching of Sputnik by the Soviets to propel the United States to establish a space program and the election of John F. Kennedy as president to establish a landing on the Moon within a decade as the goal of the Apollo program. Here, von Braun provided details about a space station he envisioned as "either the greatest force for peace ever devised, or one of the most terrible weapons of war--depending on who makes and controls it." ”

“ This interesting article says little directly about Apollo but argues that its success led NASA to develop a long- range plan in 1969 that it continued to follow for the next two decades. "Believing that only manned spaceflight sells before Congress and the public, [NASA, he argues] has never given proper exposure to its unmanned programs. ”

“ Now with the successes of Apollo, of the Mariner 6 and 7 Mars flybys, of communications and meteorology applicotions, the U.S. is at the peak of its prestige and accomplishments in space. For the short term, the race with the Soviets has been won. In reaching our present posirion, one of the grear strengths of the U.S. space program has been its open nature, and the broad front of solid achievement in science and applications that has accompanied the highly successful manned flight program. ”

“ While accomplishments related to man in space have prompted the greatest acclaim for our Nation's space activities, there has been increasing public reaction over the large investments required to conduct the manned flight program. Scientists have been particularly vocal about these high costs and problems encountered in performing science experiments as part of Apollo, a highly engineering oriented program in its early phases. ”

“ This thorough and well-written book gives a detailed but highly readable account of the enormously complex process whereby the Marshall Space Flight Center under the direction of Wernher von Braun developed the launch vehicles used in the Apollo program ultimately to send twelve humans to the Moon. Based on exhaustive research and equipped with extensive bibliographic references, this book comes as close to being a definitive history of the Saturn rocket program as is ever likely to appear. ”

“ Even at this juncture the compelling nature of space flight, and the activity that it has engendered on the part of many peoples and governments, makes the U.S. civil space program a significant area of investigation. People from all avenues of experience and levels of education share an interest in, if not always an attraction to, the drama of space flight. No doubt the lunar landing of Apollo 11 in the summer of 1969 is the high point of this continuing drama. ”

“ Thus, the understanding that we are ultimately going to explore the planets with man provides a shaping function for the post-Apollo space program. However, in a balanced program containing other goals and objectives, this focus should not assume over-riding priority and cause sacrifice of other important activity in times of severe budget constraints. Flexibility in program content and options for decision on the specific date for a manned Mars mission are inherent in this understanding. ”

“ The top-down approach works well only when the relevant bottom-up "homework" has been done in advance. Rocketry and nuclear physics research existed long before the United States committed itself to sending a man to the Moon or developing the atomic bomb. Two good examples of how advancing technology (which was not planned to be available when the mission was designed) enhanced a mission are the high-quality TV system and the lunar rover used toward the end of the Apollo program. When people have good ideas, there should be resources available to bring those ideas to fruition. ”

“ The post decade has demonstrated that programs like Project Apollo are virtually unrivaled in their capacity to catch the world's imagination and interest, win extensive admiration and respect for American achievements, and generate a common human experience. ”

“ Work in astronomy, physics and the life sciences, as well as work in the earth sciences and remote sensing, will form an essential part of the foundation for future applications benefits and will contribute to the broadening horizons of man as he acquires knowledge not only of his own planet but also about the rest of the universe.
Lunar Exploration - Apollo-type manned missions to continue exploration of the Moon should proceed. The launch rate should permit maximum responsiveness to new discoveries while maintaining mission safety and efficient utilization of support personnel. ”

“ The Space Task Group is convinced that a decision to phase out manned space flight operations, although painful, is the only way to achieve significant reductions in NASA budgets over the long term. At any level of mission activity, a continuing program of manned space flight, following use of launch vehicles and spacecraft purchased as part of Apollo, would require continued production of hardware, continued operation of extensive test, launch support and mission control facilities, and the maintenance of highly skilled teams of engineers, technicians, managers, and support personnel. ”

“ It ends with Apollo 11, when America attained its goal of the 1960s, landing the first men on the moon and returning them to the earth. The focal points of this story are the spacecraft--the command and service modules and the lunar module." Based on exhaustive documentary and secondary research as well as 341 interviews, this well- written volume covers the design, development, testing, evaluation, and operational use of the Apollo spacecraft through July 1969. ”

“ Propelled by the fire that President Kennedy sparked in our imaginations, the pioneering scientists of our country's emerging space program sent the Apollo 11 astronauts on the greatest adventure humankind has ever known. As the first extraordinary images of the moon's surface were transmitted to Earth for all to see, we began to recognize, as never before, how far the human race had traveled-and how far we have yet to go. ”

“ Washington, DC: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics in cooperation with the AIAA Houston Section, 1989. This glossy collection of interviews with 15 astronauts, managers, and others involved in the Apollo program provides some perspective on the events 20 years after the landing on the Moon. Among the interviewees were Eugene Cernan, Aaron Cohen, Maxime Faget, Robert Gilruth, Christopher Kraft, and Donald "Deke" Slayton.
Sullivan, Walter. Editor. America's Race for the Moon: The New York Times Story of Project Apollo. ”

“ It concluded from opinion surveys conducted immediately before and after Apollo 11 that the "U.S. standing in science" and space exploration improved considerably following the successful Moon landing in Great Britain, India, France, Japan, Venezuela, and the Philippines but that opinions of U.S. military strength rose only in Britain, France, and Japan, and there only slightly.
Van Dyke, Vernon. Pride and Power: The Rationale of the Space Program. ”

“ Manned Space Flight There has been universal personal identification with the astronauts and a high degree of interest in manned space activities which reached a peak both nationally and internationally with Apollo. The manned flight program permits vicarious participation by the man-in-the-street in exciting, challenging, and dangerous activity. Sustained high interest, judged in the light of current experience, however, is related to availability of new tasks and new mission activity - new challenges for man in space. ”

“ These groups lobbied with Congress and used publicity to support the space effort, not always with the expected results, however. Their intent was to turn ideas and a diffuse pro- space sentiment into legislation aimed at building support for NASA's program. This book represents the first systematic attempt to analyze the space booster efforts of the latter 1960s and the 1970s, and although a fine contribution, it should not be the final word on the subject. ”

“ Page, T.L. "The Third Lunar Science Conference-II." Sky and Telescope. 43 (April 1972) : 219-22. A general discussion of the presentations made at this important scientific gathering.
Pitts, John A. The Human Factor: Biomedicine in the Manned Space Program to 1980. Washington, DC: NASA SP-4213, 1985. This necessarily rather technical account traces the history of space medicine from its early days before the founding of NASA through the decade following the Apollo program. ”

“ In this article Alex Roland, a leading critic of NASA's human spaceflight program, argues that NASA is wedded to a large and expensive astronaut program, despite budgetary and program realities, because of its longstanding vision of what the space program should be. ”

“ A difficult decision will soon be necessary as to when or whether a manned flight should be launched. The chief justification for pushing Project Mercury on the present time scale lies in the political desire either to be the first nation to send a man into orbit, or at least to be a close second.
The marginal capability cannot be changed substantially until the Saturn booster becomes available. The NASA program for utilizing Saturn involves the development of the so-called Apollo spacecraft. ”

“ It is an eloquent and moving defense of the American space program in all its permutations.
_____. "Manifest Destiny." Omni. April 1981, pp. 48-50, 102-104. An outstanding reading experience, this article, by the dean of American popular novelists, encapsulates all the most cherished principles for manned space flight. It is human destiny to explore, he notes, and space is the next logical path. He recounts the success of Apollo as the first step in humanity's movement beyond the Earth. ”

“ Such a program would result in maximum stimulation of our technology and creation of new capability. There are many precursor activities that will be required before a manned Mars mission is attempted, such as detailed study of biomedical aspects, both physiological and psychological, of flights lasting 500-600 days, unmanned reconnaissance of the planets, creation of highly reliable life support systems, power supplies, and propulsion capability adequate for the rigors of such a voyage and reliable enough to support man. ”

“ This lengthy report summarizes the principal activities during Apollo and provides references for those seeking greater detail. It is divided into sections on the flight program, science, vehicle development and performance, spacecraft development testing, the flight crew, mission operations, biomedical matters, spacecraft manufacturing and testing, launch facilities and operations, and the lunar receiving laboratory, which initially quarantined astronaut crews and handled lunar samples. ”

“ High Technology and Organizational Change in the U.S. Space Program. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, New Series in NASA History, 1993. While not devoted exclusively to the Apollo period, this study of NASA's organizational culture over the course of its entire history includes coverage of that culture during the Apollo period. Based on archival sources and extensive interviews, McCurdy covers such topics as the Apollo fire, Apollo 13, the lunar orbit rendezvous, approaches to contracting, the relationships between NASA's centers and the headquarters, and much else. ”

“ Early upgrading of lunar exploration capability beyond the basic Apollo level including enhanced mobility capability, and lunar rovers, is important to safe and efficient realization of significant returns over the longer term. An orbiting lunar station, followed by a surface-base, building upon Earth orbital space station and space transportation system developments, could be deployed as early as the latter half of the decade. Extension of manned lunar activity beyond upgraded Apollo capability should include consideration of these options. ”