Fireproofing

“ Cases where exceptional security from fire is needed seldom occur and are more easily met. Dealing, therefore, with an ordinary warehouse, which is to be a fireproof building, it should be remembered that its fire-resisting qualities are determined not only by the materials of the actual structure, but also by its interior fittings, and, above all, by the goods stored or manufacture carried on in the place. A house of brick only obviously will not burn, but fill it with cloth or cotton goods, and the house as well as the goods may be destroyed. ”

“ The greatest objection to the ordinary open grate fire lies in the fact that 85 per cent. and more of the fuel is wasted, the heat from it going straight up the chimney flue. A fire-place generally causes extremely cold drafts from window cracks, or from door spaces, especially in very cold weather. On the other hand, if such cracks are all carefully closed and stopped up, the chimney is apt to smoke. While, therefore, an open fire-place may be adequate in warm climates, it is entirely inadequate to warm, per se, cottages in our eastern, northern, and northwestern States. ”

“ A roaring fire will sometimes set fire to the soot in the chimney, or carry burning sparks to the roof of the house.
The stove should be set at least eighteen inches away from the woodwork, and the floor beneath it should be covered with brick, tiles, or a sheet of metal.
Never leave the house, or go to bed, when the drafts of the stove or furnace are open. Overheated furnaces have caused many serious fires in the night. Even a low fire will sometimes burn up unexpectedly, especially if the wind blows hard enough to create a strong draft. ”

“ As soon as a fire starts in any part of a building, heat will be generated and immediately rise toward the ceiling, and the sprinkler nearest the fire will become heated in a very few moments to the required 155 degrees, when the cap will become loosened and will be forced off by the power of the water. The water will then be spread in fine spray on the ceiling over the fire, also directly on the fire and all around for a diameter of from fourteen to eighteen feet. ”

“ When a fireplace smokes, it should be examined to make certain that the essential requirements of construction as outlined in this bulletin have been fulfilled. If the chimney is not stopped up with fallen brick and the mortar joints are not loose, note whether nearby trees or tall structures cause eddies down the flue. To determine whether the fireplace opening is in correct proportion to the flue area, hold a piece of sheet metal across the top of the fireplace opening and then gradually lower it, making the opening smaller until smoke does not come into the room. ”

“ Mats, screen-partitions, and even the board ceilings can be quickly packed up and carried away. The roof is rapidly denuded of its tiles and boards, and the skeleton framework left makes but slow fuel for the flames. The efforts of the firemen in checking the progress of a conflagration consist mainly in tearing down these adjustable structures; and in this connection it may be interesting to record the curious fact that oftentimes at a fire the streams are turned, not upon the flames, but upon the men engaged in tearing down the building! ”

“ It is obvious that the room will be more effectually heated when the air required for combustion is supplied at a high temperature than when supplied through cracks and crevices at a low temperature. All our homes should be made fairly tight for greater comfort in winter. In such a house, with doors and windows closed, the suction caused by the fire can thus be utilized to draw into the room outside air heated in passing through a metal flue on which the fire is burning. ”

“ Large ranges, if under combustible ceilings, should have metal hoods above with a ventilating [372] pipe passing through to the outer air through a sleeve or asbestos packing.
4. Wood stud partitions back of ranges standing 12′′ or less away should be shielded with metal from the floor to at least 36′′ higher than the ranges.
5. It should be remembered that tin, zinc or sheet-iron used to protect woodwork from the heat should be so placed that there will be an air space between it and the wall.
6. If a metal is against the wood, it only serves to conceal charring without preventing it. ”

“ Fairbairn on fire-proof buildings, it is stated, that many people, especially in the manufacturing districts, are their own architects; that the warehouses in Liverpool may be loaded to one ton per yard of flooring; and that unless great care and knowledge are used in the construction of fire-proof buildings, they are of all others the most dangerous. [D]
The following are the principles on which Mr. Fairbairn proposes to build fire-proof warehouses:—
The whole of the building to be composed of non-combustible materials, such as iron, stone, or bricks. ”

“ Paving the ground around the fireplace, with flagstones or covering it with a layer of gravel or sand will prevent the area from becoming a mudhole or an unsightly bare spot; also, danger of starting brush fires by sparks falling from the firebox is lessened.
Fireboxes 12 to 16 inches wide, 16 to 24 inches long, and 6 to 8 inches deep with the hearth at 9 to 16 inches above the ground are sufficient for most purposes. Large fireboxes are wasteful of fuel; while, if the grille is too high above the hearth, much of the best cooking heat from glowing coals is lost. ”

“ In the city houses, wealthy men were beginning to build high tile stoves of Italian pattern, but for the most part people depended for heat and comfort upon the open fireplace. When the first frost came boys ran hither and thither with flaming coals for starting the first fires; up in the tower of the Church of our Lady Mary the watchmen kept eyes constantly wide open in order to detect as quickly as possible the patches of flame which sometimes broke out from the roofs of over-heated dwellings, and many a troublesome night was spent by the water master and his men quenching such fires. ”

“ Pataling Type.—With the exception of the “Third Mile” type already mentioned, all the furnaces described are open to a strong objection, in that the coolies have to enter a room, usually filled with hot smoke, in order to attend to the fires. The mere opening of the door of the building is sufficient to fan most fires into a blaze and to raise sparks. Apart from these points, it is natural for coolies to avoid entering too often, with the result that they generally stoke with the maximum load of timber. Even should they not sleep the danger is clearly great. ”

“ The pickers and the boilers are in outside buildings, so placed that they will not interfere with future extensions of the building into the form of the block letter H.
FIRE APPARATUS.
All methods for the prevention of fires fall so far short of the ideal of immunity that there is a necessity for fire-apparatus. The principle of the defence of a manufactory against fire is that of self-protection, by making the installation and management of the fire-apparatus equal to the progress of any fire which can possibly occur. ”

“ There is another very common cause of fire, which seems to come under the head of construction—viz., covering up a fireplace when not in use with wood or paper and canvas, &c. The soot falls into the fireplace, either from the flue itself, or from an adjoining one which communicates with it. A neighbouring chimney takes fire; a spark falls down the blocked-up flue, sets fire to the soot in the fireplace, which smoulders till the covering is burned through, and thus sets fire to the premises. ”

“ It is further deserving of notice, that even furniture made of wood, such as chairs, tables &c. and particularly the stair-cases and flooring of dwelling-houses, may be so far enabled to resist the ravages of the fire, that they are only reduced to coals, or embers, without spreading the conflagration by additional flames: meanwhile, there are gained, at least, two hours, during which all valuable effects may be removed to a place of safety, and the lives of the family at the same time rescued from all danger. ”

“ Investigations are being made into the effects of fire and the rate of conductivity of heat on concrete and reinforced concrete, brick, tile, building stone, etc., as a guide to the use of the most suitable materials for fire-proof building construction and the proper dimensioning of fire-resistive coverings. ”

“ The hearth is made of fireproof material and should be wide enough to catch all sparks flying from the fire. A screen is often needed for safety from fire. Do not pile reserved fuel or put rugs on the hearth.
Fireplaces and chimneys should be built of fireproof brick, stone or concrete. Have them examined once a year for cracks, as these make them unsafe. The walls of the chimney and the fireplace should be thick enough to prevent danger from fire. ”

“ A building, entirely constructed of wood, and of lath and plaster, with a very small quantity of sand laid under the floors, which were of deal, was attempted to be set on fire by means of a large quantity of dry burning fuel, faggots, straw, pitch and other combustibles, with which the lower room of this building was filled, from the floor to the ceiling almost in every part. The whole mass of fire burnt out without doing the least damage. ”

“ In a large or extensive range of houses the pipes can be carried in any direction, as any other hot-water applications, and two or more fireplaces can be attached with the fireplace outside the building, or inside with an air pipe from without to supply air to the fire if found injurious by taking it from the inside of the house. ”

“ Life is more precious than property, and events have too often proved how fatal even a moment’s hesitation is in sending for the fire-escape. It is the fire-escape man’s duty to proceed to the place of alarm immediately.
2. In the absence of a fire-escape, or pending its arrival, ladders and ropes should be sought for. Two constables or other qualified persons should ascend to the roof through the adjoining houses. The most efficient assistance can sometimes be rendered by an entrance to the upper part of the house on fire, either by the attic windows, the loft-door, or by removing the tiles ”

“ No regulations for fireproof building can be complete without most stringent rules for using the best fire resisting doors, for what the door of a boiler-furnace is to the fire within, the door of a room is to combustion going on inside: it will, if insecure, allow air in to feed the flames so long as there is fuel to burn. ”

“ Two or three men seize the nozzle of the great hose and rush with it into the burning [Pg 173] building to seek the heart of the fire. Smoke pours from the doors and windows in dense clouds, blinding and choking them until they gasp for breath. Water slops and spatters everywhere, steam rises from the blazing timbers, and the intense heat scorches and stifles them as they work. ”

“ The space beneath is traversed by numerous smoke-flues, many of which run horizontally for considerable distances. These imperfect and badly constructed flues are liable at any time to get out of order and endanger the safety of the building. I regard the recovering of this portion of the building with a fire-proof roof as absolutely necessary, and earnestly recommend that an appropriation sufficient for the purpose be made at as early a day as possible. ”

“ There was one four-story fire-proof building that was stored full of the most valuable goods, at a large price for storage, for it was considered absolutely fire-proof, but when the fire came the heat of the fire from the buildings around it caused the iron sides of it to expand, which let the roof fall in and burned every thing to the ground, so that nothing was saved. ”

“ The inlets should be placed in a side wall. To avoid danger from charring woodwork no hot-air flues should come in direct contact with floor-joists, boards or partitions; all woodwork should be securely protected by some non-conducting material. The smoke-pipe must be large and run to a good-sized smooth flue, so as to insure a good steady draft, which will remove all gases of combustion. There should be no [53] damper on the smoke pipe, and the fire should be regulated only by more or less admission of air under the fire grate. ”

“ Shaw states that heavy losses have been caused through the firemen being unable to open iron shutters from the outside, in consequence of their expansion from heat. He also gives a warning against the too common practice in cheap buildings of using glass with bullseyes or dents, through which the rays of the sun become concentrated and set fire, as has been the case, to the interior. Projecting or bow-windows must not be adopted, as fire can more easily pass in this way from one opening to another. ”

“ Smoke is even a greater danger than fire, and may hamper the helpers terribly. The possibility of opening a window has saved many a life.
Safety of Property.—As far as the protection of property is concerned, the prevention of outbreaks can be influenced by the careful construction of flues, hearths, stoves, and in certain classes of buildings by the construction of floors and ceilings, the arrangement of skylights, shutters and lightning conductors. Then comes the prevention of the fire spreading, first, by the division of risks, and secondly, by the materials used in construction. ”