James Cutbush

“ This oxidizement of the metal, in proportion as it is more rapid, necessarily gives rise to the phenomena of combustion, which, in this, and the generality of instances, presupposes a combination with oxygen. The fire is, therefore, more brilliant, as the combustion is more rapid, and the metal may be oxidized in a greater or lesser degree, but not to a maximum. From the effect taking place in the air, as it does not ensue, or is not seen, in the case, it follows, that the iron receives for the support of its combustion the oxygen of the air. ”

“ The bow is a very ancient weapon of offence, made of steel, wood, horn, or other elastic substance, which, after being bent by means of a string fastened to its two ends, in returning to its natural state, throws out an arrow with great force. That the bow was a weapon of offence among the nations of antiquity, the inhabitants of Asia and Africa, and the Aborigines of this country, and that it was used in Europe, before the invention or use of fire-arms, are facts, of which we have abundant proof. Bows are much the same in all countries. ”

“ What is a rocket? How is it formed? Is the case always made of paper? What is the war rocket? What is the composition for rockets, and how does it act? What particular care is required in charging a rocket? What is the cause of the ascension of rockets? What is the use of the conical cavity, made in a rocket at the time it is charged, or bored out after it is charged? How do cases charged with composition impart motion to wheels, and other pieces of fire-work? What is understood by the rocket principle? What is the rocket stick, and its use? ”

“ The mosaic candle owes its effect, in a great measure, to the rocket composition. Using alternately, composition, meal-powder, and a star, ramming the composition sufficiently, but not so as to break the stars, a case is formed, the effect of which is brilliant and striking. Besides the rapid combustion of the composition, the stars, when the fire comes to the meal-powder, are thrown out by it in succession, and to the height of one hundred and more feet. ”

“ Nicholson (Chemical Dictionary, article Air, atmospherical) , conceives that the lower atmosphere consists chiefly of oxygen and nitrogen, together with moisture, and the occasional vapours or exhalations of bodies. The upper atmosphere seems to be composed of a large proportion of hydrogen, a fluid of so much less specific gravity than any other, that it must naturally ascend to the highest place; where, being occasionally set on fire by electricity, it appears to be the cause of the aurora borealis and fire-balls. ”

“ The different substances in any inflammable compound, intended to produce particular colours, should be so mixed, as that, from a knowledge of the proportions which produce such colours, the effect may be retained, even when it is mixed with other bodies. For this reason, the artist should know the different effect of each ingredient. Some may show themselves in the flame, some in sparks, some in stars, others in fire-rain, and the like, as the case may be. Antimony, for instance, produces a reddish flame, if it be in a proper proportion, and not altered by the presence of other substances. ”

“ In relation to the production of flame, we may observe, that, as sundry solid and fluid substances are inflammable, the products of combustion depend on the composition of the substance made use of, and the condition under which it is burnt. As to gaseous substances that are inflammable, the base of some gases, we may remark, as carbon and hydro [6] gen, unite in the process of combustion with the base of other gases, (as oxygen;) and in other instances, the gas itself takes fire, and exhibits the phenomena of flame. Now carbonic acid gas extinguishes flame, although its base is inflammable ”

“ The strength and goodness of powder is judged of in several ways; namely, by the colour and feel, by the flame when a small pinch is fired, and by measuring the actual projectile force by the eprouvette, and by the distance to which a given weight will project a ball of given dimensions under circumstances in all cases exactly similar.
When powder rubbed between the fingers easily breaks down into an impalpable dust, it is a mark of containing too much charcoal, and the same if it readily soils white paper when gently drawn over it. ”

“ Friction is, therefore, one means of producing distributable heat, which is also exemplified very frequently in the axis of a carriage wheel; of mill work; in the rubbing of wood, when turned on its axis in a lathe, by which turners ornament their work with black [xxi] rings; rubbing a cord very swiftly backwards and forwards against a post or tree, or letting it run over a boat, &c. as in the whale fishery; the motion of two iron plates against each other, pressing them at the same time, &c. The great object in the construction of machines is to avoid, or lessen the degree of friction. ”

“ A rocket, however, is very different. The very medium, in this case, is the principal agent in producing the motion; and being enabled to ascertain all the successive energies of the propelling power, and the resisting force, we may thus far determine correctly. It is suggested, that a rocket fixed to the ballistic pendulum would determine its whole energy; but, in order to make the experiment more perfect, it is proposed to attach it to a wheel, or revolving body, and then to measure its successive energies by the motion of some weight attached to the revolving axis of the machine. ”

“ That the stick keeps the rocket perpendicular is obvious. If the rocket should begin to tumble, moving round a point in the choke, as being the common centre of gravity of rocket and stick, there would be so much friction against the air, by the stick between the centre and the point, and the point would beat against the air with so much velocity, that the reaction of the medium would restore it to its perpendicularity. When the composition is burnt out, and the impulse upwards has ceased, the common centre of gravity is brought lower towards the middle of the stick. ”

“ There is no doubt, that the accelerated motion of the wheel causes the composition to burn more rapidly, in the same way as a bellows excites the heat of a blast-furnace; and, therefore, the increased brilliancy of the fire may be attributed to the greater rapidity of the combustion, which necessarily produces, in a shorter time, the oxidizement of the iron, and, at the same time, the combustion of the other substances. ”

“ When steam is made to pass over ignited antimony, the decomposition of the water is so rapid, as to produce a violent detonation. At a white heat, it burns, and forms a white coloured oxide, called the argentine flowers of antimony. Its oxides are various, some of which, possessing acid properties, are called acids. The protoxide is gray, the antimonious acid, white, and antimonic acid, of a straw colour. The crocus of antimony, and the glass of antimony are oxides of this metal, but in particular states of combination. ”

“ It also appears, that a rocket sent in an horizontal direction will not pass over so great a distance, as when its motion is vertical; for, a rocket, directed in a line parallel to the horizon, passes through a medium of equal density, but if directed perpendicular to the horizon, from the moment it leaves the ground till it arrives at its greatest height, it penetrates and passes through an atmosphere whose density is continually decreasing, and consequently its impelling force meets with less resistance. ”

“ Electricity, an agent so essential in the economy of nature, has its ends, its uses; and while, no doubt, it unites hydrogen with oxygen, in the most elevated regions of the air, and forms water, it may act under particular circumstances to produce a union of azote and oxygen so as to generate nitric acid. ”

“ It will be sufficient, however, to observe, that the ashes of all plants contain alkali, in more or less quantity, which depends on various circumstances; and that the alkali may be extracted by lixiviation, and, in some instances, may even be seen among the ashes, in a semivitrified mass. The white ashes, which are formed by the combustion of animal matter, as osseous or bony substances, we may remark, do not afford potassa or soda, but only phosphate of lime, and some uncombined earths. Bones, nevertheless, may, like wood, be carbonized, although the charcoal formed is of a different nature. ”

“ And when the scene passes before them in a room representing a cave hung with black, a solemn silence being occasionally interrupted by mournful sounds from an appropriate musical instrument, it is not easy for an observer to defend himself from the impression of terror, at the sight of an object, in itself formed to produce the illusion, and which finds in the imagination a place already prepared for the reception of phantoms. ”

“ Fuses are made of wood turned in the form of a truncated cone, in order to enter fairly into the eye of the shell. They are perforated through the middle, in the direction of the axis, so as to receive the composition. This channel is called the light of the fuse. The wood that is employed, should be strong, dry, sound, and without knots. The best kinds are the oak, the elm, and the linden. They are filled with a slow combustible composition. The materials are increased or diminished according to the nature of their application. Fuses are sometimes made of copper. ”

“ In the manufacture of powder, particular kinds of wood are selected for carbonization. These are generally, willow, hazle, maple, poplar, linden, buckthorn, or alder, or those which are tender and light, because, as they are less dense, and consequently more friable, they enflame and consume more rapidly: they are known in the arts by the name of white wood. When a less sudden effect is to be produced with the gunpowder, and the combustion prolonged, as in some sky-rockets, the charcoal of hard wood is to be preferred, such as the oak, beech, &c. ”

“ We would not say, that the workman should be a chemist, but that he should know enough to determine the purity of the substances he employs, and their respective qualities and effects; for if that principle were admitted, we might go further and say, that every person, who practices a chemical art, as the tanner, gluemaker, brazier, &c. should be a chemist, or that the art could not be conducted without a previous knowledge of chemistry, which we know is contrary to fact. ”

“ Glass, in the form of powder or dust, is used in fire-works. The pulverization of glass is easily performed. It may be done in an iron mortar, and passed though fine wire or brass sieves. It is used in the composition for wheels, in water balloons, cones, fire-pumps, slow white fire, &c.
Glass is nothing more than fused silica, made by exposing a mixture of silica and other substances to the action of a violent heat. ”

“ If we mix pitch, tar, tallow, &c. with nitrate of potassa, and burn the mixture, we have the combined action of two elementary substances, which enter into the composition of these bodies, namely, carbon and hydrogen. The products would be carbonic acid gas, and water; because the oxygen of the nitre would unite with the hydrogen, as well as the carbon. If we employ sulphur at the same time, another product would be sulphurous acid gas, and probably sulphuric acid; and if gunpowder be used, as in the fire-stone composition, then, besides these products, we would have those of the gunpowder. ”

“ If we have a globe made of wood, of any diameter, and divide its surface into twenty-four equal parts, and bore a perpendicular hole in each of these divisions to the centre, we may then represent this piece in the following manner: In every hole, except one, put a case filled with brilliant or any other charge, and let the mouths of the cases be even with the surface of the globe. Then cut in the globe a groove from the mouth of one case to that of another for leaders, which must be carried from case to case, so that they may all be fired together. ”

“ Fuses are intended to communicate fire to the powder with which shells, &c. are filled, so as to make them burst in the places to which they are thrown. They are composed, according to some, of one pound of gunpowder, and two or three ounces of charcoal, well mixed together; or of four pounds of gunpowder, two of saltpetre, and one of sulphur. It is to be remarked that the time a bomb, or grenade, will take to burn, after it has been thrown out of the mortar, or a howitz out of a howitzer, depends entirely upon the length and quality of the fuse. ”

“ The alloys of copper and tin may be decomposed by dissolving them in an acid, the muriatic for instance, and immersing a sheet of iron, which will precipitate the copper. The tin may then be separated by immersing a plate of lead, or zinc, by either of which metals, it will be precipitated.
Bronze, being a mixed metal, in which the copper forms the principal ingredient, is sometimes used in fire-works, in lieu of copper or brass; for its effects are similar. By the combustion of bronze filings, we have an oxide of copper and an oxide of tin. ”

“ Plants have the property of decomposing it, and in this respect nature has employed a mean of regenerating the atmosphere, on the purity of which depends, in an eminent degree, the very existence of animal life. The prime equivalent of carbonic acid is 2.75, and carbonic acid is composed of carbon 0.75 + 2.0 oxygen.
Carbonic acid may be decomposed when combined with a base, as lime, by phosphorus and heat, for charcoal and a phosphate of lime will be produced. But carbonic acid in the state of gas may be decomposed by potassium. ”

“ When the cases, or candles, are charged, we untie them, and roll some coarse paper round each end of them, at the extremity, and round the choak.
We may remark, that in the charging of Roman candles, as their effect depends greatly on the appearance of the stars, which issue out in succession, too much care cannot be used in preserving the star composition entire. To do this, much art is required in putting in, and ramming, the rocket composition, so as not to injure or break it. The quantity of gunpowder to each star must be small, otherwise it might burst the case. ”

“ There are some facts contrary to the received theory of combustion; that of gunpowder furnishes one. We have also another instance in the combustion of oil of turpentine by nitric acid.
Gunpowder will burn with great avidity in close vessels, or [135] under an exhausted receiver, and we know that the oxygen is already combined with azote in the nitric acid of the nitrate of potassa, and consequently not in a gaseous but a solid state; yet we also know that a great quantity of caloric and light are emitted during the combustion, and nearly all the products are gaseous. ”