James Alfred Ewing

“ An important mechanical advantage belongs to the compound engine in the fact that it avoids the extreme thrust and pull which would have to be borne by the piston-rod of a single-cylinder engine working at the same power with the same initial pressure and the same ratio of expansion. If all the expansion took place in the low-pressure cylinder, the piston at the beginning of the stroke would be exposed to a thrust much greater than the sum of the thrusts on the two pistons of a compound engine in which a fair proportion of the expansion is performed in the small cylinder. ”

“ Experiment has shown that when a dynamo is used to produce an electric current, which, in its turn, drives another dynamo serving as a motor, the double con version of energy may be performed with no very serious loss. In favourable cases, when the dynamo and motor are close together, the motor will yield more than 80 per cent, of the work which is spent in driving the dynamo. When they are far apart there is an additional loss, due to the resistance of the conductor which connects them, and a further loss due to its imperfect insulation. ”

“ Enough has been said to show that the invention of the steam turbine is the most important step in steam engineering since the time of Watt. It is the first solution of the problem of using steam efficiently in an engine without reciprocating parts. The object in most steam engines is to deliver power to revolving machinery, and much ingenuity has been expended in attempts to devise engines which will produce rotation directly, instead of by conversion of reciprocating motion. No rotary engine, however, was permanently successful until the steam turbine took a practical form. ”

“ In the steam turbine, as in the water turbine (for which see Hydraulics) , the force directly operative to do useful work is derived from the kinetic energy of the operative fluid, either by the impulse of a jet or jets sliding over movable blades, or by the reaction of orifices or guides from which the jets issue. The pressure, instead of being exerted on a piston, is employed in the first instance to set the fluid itself in motion. There is a conversion of pressure-energy into velocity-energy as a preliminary step towards obtaining the effective work of the machine. ”

“ TRACTION, Electric.The driving of vehicles by electricity was made commercially practicable by the invention of the dynamo-electric machine, which gave a ready means of producing electrical energy by the expenditure of mechanical work, and by the further discovery that the function of the dynamo could be reversed, that it was capable of acting efficiently as a motor to do mechanical work when supplied with energy in the electrical form. ”

“ A reciprocating mass such as a piston cannot be balanced by the use of revolving masses, for the forces which are due to the inertia of the piston necessarily act along the line of its stroke, while those due to revolving masses are continually changing their direction. The inertia of each connecting-rod may be approximately treated by resolving its mass into two constituents, one of which moves with the crank-pin, and is therefore an addition to the revolving system, while the other moves with the cross-head, and is therefore an addition to the reciprocating system. ”

“ Prior to the advent of the steam turbine the demand for engines suitable for driving electric generators without the intervention of a belt led to the introduction of various forms of direct-acting engine adapted to run at a high speed. Some of these were single acting, steam being admitted to one side of the piston only, generally the back, with the result that the rods could be kept in a state of thrust throughout the revolution, and alternations of stress in them and at the joints thereby avoided, together with the knocking and wear of the bearing brasses which it is apt to cause. ”

“ AIR-ENGINE, the name given to heat-engines which use air for their working substance, that is to say for the substance which is caused alternately to expand and contract by application and removal of heat, this process enabling a portion of the applied heat to be transformed into mechanical work. ”

“ In the case of a uniformly distributed stress, ab is a plane surface parallel to AB, and c is the centre of gravity of the surface AB. When a bar is subjected to simple pull applied axially—that is to say, so that the resultant stress passes through the centre of gravity of every cross-section —the stress may be taken as (sensibly) uniformly distributed over any section not near a place where the form of the cross-section changes, provided the bar is homogeneous in respect of elastic quality and is initially in a state of ease and the stress is within the limits of elasticity. ”

“ In respect of mechanical arrangement the modern engine differs from Watt's chiefly in this, that the beam, an indispensable feature in the early pumping-engines, and one which held its place long after the need for it had vanished, has gradually given way to more direct modes of connecting the piston with the crank. Another difference is in the modern use of high-pressure steam. It is remarkable that Watt, notwithstanding the fact that his own invention of expansive working must have opened his eyes to the advantage of high-pressure steam, declined to admit it into his practice. ”

“ Entropy.—The study of steam-engine problems is greatly assisted by introducing the idea of entropy and making use of diagrams in which the two co-ordinates are entropy and temperature. Entropy is a condition of the working substance defined by the statement that when any quantity of heat δQ is received by, or generated in, or rejected by the substance, when its absolute temperature is τ, the substance gains or loses entropy by the amount δQ/τ. Thus ΣδQ/τ measures the whole change of entropy in a process which involves the taking in or rejection of heat at more than one temperature. ”

“ Again, a few engines—such as steam hammers and certain kinds of steam pumps—are non-rotative, that is to say, the reciprocating motion of the piston does work simply on a reciprocating piece; but generally an engine does work on a continuously revolving shaft, and is termed rotative. In most cases the crank-pin of the revolving shaft is connected directly with the piston-rod by a connecting-rod, and the engine is then said to be direct-acting; in other cases, of which the ordinary beam engine is the most important example, a lever is interposed between the piston and the connecting-rod. ”

“ The resistance to slip in the large ferrite crystals is comparatively small, and hence the overheated metal has a low elastic limit and shows but little power of resisting alternating stress. By suitable heat treatment, on the other hand, it is possible to bring the metal into a state in which the crystals are small and the ferrite and pearlite are so intimately blended that there is much mutual support: the elastic limit is high and the metal is well adapted to endure stresses which would otherwise cause fatigue. ”

“ The irregular boundaries are the chance surfaces in which one grain meets another during the progress of its crystalline growth. Etching a polished surface develops a multitude of facets which have the same orientation over any one grain, and therefore give it a uniform texture and a uniform brightness in reflecting light of any particular incidence. The size of the grains depends very much upon the previous thermal treatment to which the metal has been subjected. Sudden cooling from a high temperature tends to make the grains small, slow cooling tends to keep them large ”

“ The ordinary locomotive consists of a pair of direct-acting horizontal or nearly horizontal engines, fixed in a rigid frame under the front end of the boiler, and coupled to the same shaft by cranks at right angles, each with a single slide-valve worked by a link-motion, or by a form of radial gear. The engine is non-condensing, except in a very few special cases, and the exhaust steam, delivered at the base of the funnel through a blast-pipe, serves to produce a draught of air through the furnace. ”

“ Its greater simplicity, compactness and freedom from vibration are merits which have already gone far to secure for it a preference, notwithstanding the short time that has passed since it became known as a practicable engine. The largest demands for power occur in fast passenger vessels, in war-ships and in stations from which electric energy is distributed for traction or other uses; in all these cases the steam turbine is now taking the leading place. ”

“ Professor James Thomson 4 pointed out that the effect of any externally applied load depends, to a very material extent, on whether there is or is not initial internal stress, or, in other words, whether the loaded piece is initially in what Professor Karl Pearson has called a state of ease. Internal stress existing without the application of force from without the piece must satisfy the condition that its resultant vanishes over any complete cross-section. ”

“ The factor should in general be such as to bring the working stress within the limit of elasticity and even to leave within that limit a margin which will be ample enough to cover such contingencies as imperfection in the theory on which the calculation of the working stress is founded, lack of uniformity in the material itself, uncertainty in the estimation of loads, imperfections of workmanship which may cause the actual dimensions to fall short of those that have been specified, alterations arising from wear, rust and so forth. ”

“ It is a characteristic of the turbine that it is able to make effective use of low pressure steam. No condensing piston and cylinder can compete with it in this respect; for the turbine continues to extract heat energy usefully when the pressure has fallen so low that frictional losses and the inconveniences attaching to excessive volume make it impracticable to continue expansion to any good purpose under a piston. ”

“ In the domain of pure science Watt claims recognition not only as having had ideas greatly in advance of his age regarding what is now called energy, but as a discoverer of the composition of water. Writing to Joseph Priestley in April 1783, with reference to some of Priestley's experiments, he suggests the theory that “water is composed of dephlogisticated air and phlogiston deprived of part of their latent or elementary heat.” It difficult to determine the exact meaning attached to these antiquated terms, and to say how far Watt's suggestion anticipated the fuller discovery of Cavendish. ”

“ The results of tests are generally stated by giving the number of pounds of steam used per horse-power-hour, or by giving the work done by each pound of steam, a quantity which is directly comparable with the amount of work ideally obtainable, if the engine followed the perfect Rankine cycle already discussed. To make a complete engine trial the engine is caused to work not only at full power, but at various fractions of its greatest load. ”

“ Before Watt's time the steam-engine was exclusively a steam-pump, slow-working, cumbrous and excessively wasteful of fuel. His first patent made it quick in working, powerful and efficient, but still only as a steam-pump. ”

“ Tests of Strength.—Ordinary tests of strength are made by submitting the piece to direct pull, direct compression, bending or torsion. Testing machines are frequently arranged so that they may apply any of these four modes of stress; tests by direct tension are the most common, and next to them come tests by bending. When the samples to be tested for tensile strength are mere wires, the stress may be applied directly by weights ”

“ If the applied stress is less than a certain limit, the strain is in general small in amount, and disappears wholly, or almost wholly when the stress is removed. If the applied stress exceeds this limit, the strain is, in general, much greater than before, and most of it is found, when the stress is removed, to consist of permanent set. The limits of stress within which strain is wholly or almost wholly elastic are called limits of elasticity. ”

“ In inside-cylinder engines the cylinders are placed side by side within the frame of the engine, and their connecting-rods work on cranks in the driving shaft. In outside-cylinder engines the cylinders are spread apart far enough to lie outside the frame of the engine, and to work on crank-pins on the outsides of the driving wheels. This dispenses with the cranked axle, which is the weakest part of a locomotive engine. Owing to the frequent alternation of strain to which it is subject, a locomotive crank axle is peculiarly liable to rupture, and has to be removed after a certain amount of use. ”

“ Efficiency of a Perfect Steam Engine: Limits of Temperature.— If the action here described could be realized in practice, we should have a thermodynamically perfect steam engine using saturated steam. The fraction of the heat supplied to it which such an engine would convert into work would depend simply on the temperature, and therefore on the pressure, at which the steam was produced and condensed. The temperature of condensation is limited by the consideration that there must be an abundant supply of some substance to absorb the rejected heat ”

“ In marine practice, where economy of fuel is a much more important factor in determining the design than it is on land, the principle of compound expansion has been greatly extended by the introduction of triple and even quadruple expansion engines, in which the steam is made to expand successively in three or in four cylinders. ”

“ Just as the working substance which alternately takes in and gives out heat in the steam-engine is water (converted during a part of the action into steam) , so in the air-engine it is air. The practical drawbacks to employing air as the working substance of a heat-engine are so great that its use has been very limited. ”

“ The stresses which occur in engineering practice are, or ought to be, in all cases within the limits of elasticity, and within these limits the change of cross-section caused by longitudinal pull or push is so small that it may be neglected in reckoning the intensity of stress.
Ultimate tensile strength and ultimate shearing strength are well defined, since these modes of stress (simple pull and simple shearing stress) lead to distinct fracture if the stress is sufficiently increased. ”

“ Near the top of each chamber is a small air-valve opening inwards, which allows a little air to enter each time a vacuum is formed. When any steam is condensed, the air mixed with it remains on the cold surface and forms a non-conducting layer. The pulsometer is, of course, far from efficient as a thermodynamic engine, but its suitability for situations where other steam-pumps cannot be used, and the extreme simplicity of its working parts, make it valuable in certain cases. ”

“ The specific heat during superheating is nearly constant at low pressures, its value being approximately 0·48; at high pressures it is higher, especially when the amount of superheating is slight. Calendar’s equations enable it to be calculated for any assigned conditions of temperature and pressure. They also allow a direct determination to be made of the total heat of superheated steam of given temperature and pressure, and from this, by comparison with the total heat of saturated steam at the same pressure, the mean specific heat over any stated range of superheating, may be found. ”