Walter Holbrook Gaskell

“ I have been told that it is impossible for one man to consider so vast a subject with that thoroughness which is necessary, before any theory can be accepted as the true solution of the problem. I acknowledge the vastness of the task, and feel keenly enough my own shortcomings. ”

“ In order, therefore, to compare two adult animals for the purpose of finding kinship between them, it is necessary to find whether parts such as the gut, which in both cases have the same function, arise from the same germinal layer in the embryo. We can, in fact, have no certainty of kinship, even although the two animals are built up as far as the adult state is concerned on a remarkably similar plan, unless we can study their respective embryos and find out what parts arise from the hypoblast and what from the epiblast. ”

“ I do not myself think any such explanation is at all probable, because I cannot conceive such a process taking place without a temporary derangement—to say the least of it—of the power of vision, and as I do not believe that evolution was brought about by sudden, startling changes, but by gradual, orderly adaptations, and as I also believe in the paramount importance of the organs of vision for the evolution of all the higher types of the animal kingdom, I must believe that in the evolution from the Arthropod to the Cephalaspid, the lateral eyes remained throughout functional. ”

“ We see that all that part which has degenerated is covered over by the somatic muscles,—by, in fact, muscles which, being innervated by the foremost spinal nerves, belong naturally to the region immediately following the branchial. I suggest, therefore, that the original skeletal covering of muco-cartilage has remained intact only where it has not been invaded and covered over by somatic muscles, but has been invaded by blood and undergone the same kind of degenerative change as overtakes the great mass of this tissue at transformation wherever the somatic muscles have overgrown it. ”

“ Not having been educated in a morphological laboratory and taught that the one organ which is homologous throughout the animal kingdom is the gut, and that therefore the gut of the invertebrate ancestor must continue on as the gut of the vertebrate, the conception that the central nervous system has grown round and enclosed the original ancestral gut, and that the vertebrate has formed a new gut did not seem to me so impossible as to prevent my taking it as a working hypothesis, and seeing to what it would lead. ”

“ If we take Limulus as the only living type of the Palæostraca, we are struck with the fact that the animal consists to all intents and purposes of prosomatic and mesosomatic regions only; the metasoma consisting of the segments posterior to the mesosoma is very insignificant, so that the large mass of the animal consists of what has become the head-region in the vertebrate; the spinal region, which has become in the higher vertebrates by far the largest region of the body, can hardly be said to exist in such an animal as Limulus. ”

“ The great value of the study of embryology for questions of the sequence of the evolution of animals is to be found in what is known as the Law of Recapitulation, which asserts that every animal gives some indication in the stages of its individual development of its ancestral history. Naturally enough it cannot pass through all the stages of its past history with equal clearness, for what has taken millions of years to be evolved has to be compressed into an evolution lasting only a few months or weeks, or even less. ”

“ Each separate vertebrate organ, one after the other, as shown in the last chapter, indicates in its development the manner in which it arose from the corresponding organ of the arthropod. There is no failure in the evidence of embryology, the failure is in the interpretation thereof.
So, too, my theory vindicates the geological method. There is no failure here; on the contrary, the record of the rocks proclaims with startling clearness not only the sequence of evolution in the vertebrate kingdom itself, but the origin of the vertebrate from the most highly-developed invertebrate race. ”

“ Thus the suggestion arises that in the embryo a cellular lining is formed to a cœlomic cavity (mesothelium) composed of cells which have no communication with the nervous system, and are capable of a separate existence as free individuals, either in the form of germinal cells or of lymphocytes, hæmocytes, and plasma-cells, so that these latter free cells may be considered as living an independent existence in the body, and ministering to it in the same sense as the germ-cells live an independent existence in the body. ”

“ I can only suppose that the reason why the thyroid gland has persisted throughout the vertebrate kingdom, after the generative tissues had found a new outlet for their products in the body-cavity of the posterior region, is because it possessed some important function in addition to that connected with the exit of the products of the generative organs; a function which was essential to the well-being, or even to the life of the animal. We do not know its function in the scorpion, or the nature of its secretion in that animal. ”

“ It is a striking fact that Milne-Edwards describes the nerve-roots in exactly this manner. The great characteristic of the nerve-roots in Limulus as in other arthropods is the large appendage-nerve, which is always a mixed nerve; in addition, there is a system of sensory nerves to the prosomatic and mesosomatic carapaces, called by him the epimeral nerves, which are purely sensory, and a third set of roots which are motor to the body-muscles, and possibly also sensory to the ventral surface between the appendages. ”

“ To those who believe in Evolution and the Darwinian theory of the survival of the fittest, it is simply inconceivable that a soft-bodied animal living in the mud, blind, with a rudimentary brain and rudimentary olfactory organs, such as is postulated when we think of Balanoglossus and Amphioxus, should hold its own and come victorious out of the struggle for existence at a time when the sea was peopled with powerful predaceous scorpion- and crab-like armour-plated animals possessing a well-developed brain, good eyes and olfactory organs, and powerful means of locomotion. ”

“ In the whole scheme of evolution we can recognize, not only an upward progress in the organization of the animal as a whole, but also a distinct advance in the structure of the tissues composing an individual, which accompanies that upward progress. Thus it is possible to speak of an evolution of the supporting tissues from the simplest form of connective tissue up to cartilage and thence to bone ”

“ It is clear that an invagination, the effect of which is an inversion of the retinal layer, would lead to the same result, whether the retinal optic nerves were short or long, whether, in fact, a retinal ganglion existed or not. Undoubtedly the presence of the retinal ganglion tends greatly to obscure any process of invagination, so that, as already mentioned, many observers, with Parker, consider the retina of the crustacean lateral eye to be formed by a thickening only, without any invagination, while Reichenbach says an obscure invagination does take place at a very early stage. ”

“ The only living animal which we know of as at all approaching the most primitive arthropod type is, as pointed out by Korschelt and Heider, Peripatus; and Peripatus, as is well known, possesses a true cœlom and true cœlomic excretory organs in all the segments of the body. Sedgwick shows that at first a true cœlom, as typical as that of the annelids, is formed in each segment of the body, and that then this cœlom (which represents in the vertebrate van Wijhe's pro-cœlom) splits into a dorsal and a ventral part. ”

“ Nowadays all scientific knowledge has increased so largely that specialization is inevitable, and every investigator is confined more and more not only to one department of science, but as a rule to one small portion of that department. In the case of such cognate sciences as physiology and comparative anatomy this limiting of the scope of view is especially deleterious, for zoology without physiology is dead, and physiology in many of its departments without comparative anatomy can advance but little. ”

“ For all questions of evolution the presence of vestigial organs in the embryo is the important consideration, for they give an indication of near ancestry; the early formation of the embryo concerns a much more remote ancestral period, all vestigial organs of which may well have been lost and obscured by cœnogenetic changes. Let us, then, consider the two things—the vestigial organs and the early formation of the embryo—separately, and see how far my opponents are justified in their statement that my theory contravenes the principles of embryology. ”

“ Since Darwin wrote the "Origin of Species," and laid down that the law of the 'survival of the fittest' is the factor upon which evolution depends, it has gradually dawned upon the scientific mind that 'the fittest' may be produced in two diametrically opposite ways: either by progress upwards to a superior form, or by degeneration to a lower type of animal. ”

“ If we regard only the retinal and nervous elements, and for the moment pay no attention to the existence of the tube, Götte's observation that the true retina has been formed from the optic plate (Sinnes-platte) to which the retinal portion of the brain (retinal ganglion) has become firmly fixed, and that then the optic nerve has been formed by the withdrawal of the rest of the brain (optic lobes) , is word for word applicable to the description of the development of the compound retina of the arthropod eye, as has been already stated. ”

“ It does not seem to me possible to conceive of the gonads arising from cells of the epiblast or of the hypoblast, in the sense that such cells are differentiated cells belonging to a layer with a definite meaning. When we consider that the gonad gives origin to the whole of a new individual, that in the protozoan ancestors of the Metazoa their ultimate aim and object was the formation of gonads, it seems a wrong conception to speak of the gonads as formed from cells belonging either to the gut-wall or to the external epithelium. The gonads must stand in a category by themselves ”

“ Then, again, the too exclusive study of one subject always tends to force the mind into a special groove—into a line of thought so deeply tinged with the prevalent teaching of the subject, that any suggestions which arise contrary to such teaching are apt to be dismissed at once as heretical and not worthy of further thought ”

“ We must endeavour to dismiss from our imagination such forms as the salmon and shark as representatives of the fish-tribe, and the lobster and spider of the arthropods, and try to picture the kind of animals living in the seas in the early Devonian and Upper Silurian times, and then we find, to our surprise, that instead of the contrast between fishes and arthropods being so striking as to make any comparison between the two seem an absurdity, the difficulty in the last century, and even now, is to decide in many cases whether a fossil is an arthropod or a fish. ”

“ I have not been able to obtain any evidence of a fusiform nerve-cell on the course of the terminal nerve-fibres as depicted by him; fusiform cells there are in plenty, as depicted in my drawing, but none with a large nucleus resembling those of the main ganglion. In no case, either in the flabellum or in the branchial organs of Limulus, or in the pecten-organs, have I ever seen a ganglion-cell within the chitin-layer; all the nuclei seen there resemble those of the cells of the hypodermis or else the elongated nuclei characteristic of the presence of nerve-fibres. ”

“ Nature's mistake was rectified and further evolution secured, not by degeneration in the brain-region, for that means degradation not upward progress, but by the formation of a new food-channel, in consequence of which the brain was free to develop to its fullest extent. Thus the great and mighty kingdom of the Vertebrata was evolved with its culminating organism—man—whose massive brain with all its possibilities could never have been evolved if he had still been compelled to pass the whole of his food through the narrow œsophageal tube, still existent in him as the infundibular tube. ”

“ In order to express this conclusion, I have used the term Protostraca, invented by Korschelt and Heider, to indicate a primitive arthropod group, from which both arachnids and crustaceans may be supposed to have arisen, and have therefore stated that the vertebrate did not arise directly from the annelids, but from the Protostraca. Such an origin signifies that the origin of the excretory organs of the vertebrate must not be looked for in the segmental organs of the annelid, but rather in such modified annelid organs as would naturally exist in a primitive arthropod group. ”

“ Nothing but good can, in my opinion, result from the incursion of the non-specialist into the realm of the specialist, provided that the former is in earnest. Over and over again the chemist has given valuable help to the physicist, and the physicist to the chemist, so closely allied are the two subjects; so also is it with physiology and anatomy, the two subjects are so interdependent that a worker in the one may give valuable aid towards the solution of some large problem which is the special territory of the other. ”

“ But there is one most important fact which ought to make us hesitate before accepting the homology of the dorsal heart of the arthropod with the ventral heart of the vertebrate—The heart in all invertebrates is a systemic heart, i.e. drives the arterial blood to the different organs of the body, and then the veins carry it back to the respiratory organ, from whence it passes to the heart. ”