Emil Abderhalden

“ The more the biologist enlarges the limits of his researches, and the more he follows up all general phenomena, the more may he venture to hope that he will gain new means and new lines for the study of special processes. The appearance of the defensive ferments in the animal organism, when it is invaded by substances that are out of harmony either with its body, with its blood, or even with some of its cells, gives us an insight into many problems of pathology, and particularly into those of immunity. ”

“ When thousands and thousands of leucocytes hurry forth against an invasion of micro-organisms, for the purpose of limiting their sphere of action or of subduing them, no more convincing picture could be presented to us of the synthesizing capacities of the animal organism. Even the full-grown organism is able at any moment to completely equip a vast army of cells and endow them with special functions. ”

“ From this point of view we may well imagine that medicines and other therapeutical means effect a curative action, without directly attacking particular kinds of cells which may be living as parasites in the animal organism, for they need only to destroy the conditions of existence required by the organism in question by means of a modification of its nutritive substrate. It is imaginable that certain means do modify certain cells to such an extent, that their components can no longer be considered as supplying nutritive material for the organism that lives in them. ”

“ With the help of the ferments the cell is continuously remodelling in a suitable manner the food, which the blood brings to it still in harmony with the plasma, either by way of completing a further decomposition, or of setting up a synthesis. The ferments are the tools of the cells, by means of which fuel is brought into a suitable form, the structure of the cell is completed, and various substances are prepared, which, as secretions, have a more or less definite part to play throughout the organism. If the organism liberates defensive ferments, then its cells effect nothing actually new. ”

“ The idea of an entirely specific structure for each cell of an organ—both from the chemical and physical points of view—is based not only on the supposition that, without such a notion, the special duties and functions of the separate cells of the body would appear incomprehensible, but, above all, on the above-mentioned fact that definite secretions given off by particular organs act constantly and only upon cells of a definite system. ”

“ The reaction we have demonstrated enables us at any time to decide whether a certain substance is in harmony with the body or not. We have already emphasized the fact that we must distinguish not only substances that are in, or out of, harmony with the body, but also those which are in, or out of, harmony with the blood or its plasma, or again with the cells. ”

“ But in the same manner as the well-being of a people or a State finally depends upon the regular collaboration of the many, so each kind of cell expresses its full value only by associating its work with that of the other cells in the organism. Only then is a cell capable of developing all its capacities. In many particular functions, indeed, so much division of labour is found, and to such an extent, that a large number of cells are entirely dependent upon the functions of others. ”

“ Strong support for this view of a specific cell structure is supplied by the numerous experiments on transplantation. The surgeon nowadays tries, as much as possible, to retain the full strength of the functions of every organ, and, if some of the tissues are missing, he seeks aid in substitutes. It is found that only those tissues graft which are taken from the same species, while still better results are obtained by the use of parts of the same individual. Heteroplasty, i.e., the attempt to graft foreign tissues, has never succeeded. A body requires cells in harmony with itself. ”

“ It is an entirely different question to ask whether the serological diagnosis of an organ can be applied to differential diagnosis, i.e., whether we are entitled to accord a preference to this, as against any other, method.
Many years may be required before the question of the practical value of the methods worked out can be decided for each separate case. Every research, which has not been carried out with absolutely unobjectionable technique, delays our arrival at a clear appreciation of the suitability of the methods. ”

“ How often may not a micro-organism penetrate into an organism and die out, only because it is unable to feed on the nutritive medium supplied, while in other cases it is able to settle down because the substrates presented to it can be rendered accessible by its ferments. If all the substances are used up, and none of the same kind are supplied anew by the host at the proper place, then the conditions of its existence are withdrawn from the micro-organism, and it must either perish or find a new "pasture." ”

“ The idea that each kind of cell has its own structure, and to some extent its own metabolism, opens up a wide vista for therapy also. So far as the organism always forms products which act upon certain cells and only upon these, it must be possible to find substances which will act only upon those cells whose metabolism we may wish to alter in some way or other, or whose complete destruction is desirable. ”

“ So long as purely chemical research is unable to answer questions concerning the finer structure of the cell elements, we are bound to resort to indirect methods. The latter have, in a relatively short time, opened up a vast field, and discovered views of the widest interest in regard to every kind of cellular process. It is the duty of the future to follow up with exact methods all the observations that have been made, and to replace with known quantities the many unknowns with which our present-day methods have still to reckon. ”

“ In spite of our favourable experiences we have not ventured generally to recommend the use of animal organs. It is still very difficult to find a proper balance amongst the contrary results of many observers, and were we to change the type of substrate without sufficient experience, we should arrive at still more divergent results. This is the reason why it is particularly necessary to use organs of the same species as that to which the serum under investigation belongs, as well as those of a different type. ”

“ It may be long before the true nature of ferments is elucidated; nevertheless, we shall always be getting nearer to the possibility of excluding the second unknown—the substrate. The more we extend our knowledge of the composition and structure of the food material, and of the components of the cells, the more do we find ourselves in a position to make use of substrates of a known structure, which enable us to investigate the ferments in a much surer manner, and to determine exactly how they decompose a particular product. ”

“ It would be quite erroneous if we were to consider any substance—for instance, albumen—as the paramount life substance. A single ion can in certain cases decide the life or death of a cell. An aggregation of molecules may combine to form a powerful complex—a colloid—and by means of its properties dominate the whole function of a cell. The structure and configuration of the separate compounds, and of the separate units of the cell are of the greatest importance for its individuality. ”

“ Just as in a workshop, in the production of an article, one machine prepares the material for another, and one workman transfers to another material which is finished up to a certain degree, so do the tissue cells mutually support each other in their task. The cells of the gut and the liver continually act as important sorters for the whole organism. ”

“ An exhaustive study of the sources of nitrogen necessary for each separate organism, paying due attention to other nutritious materials and conditions, will no doubt lead to exact methods for the culture of separate cells in the laboratory. Following this line of inquiry we could surround certain microorganisms with peptones whose composition we are familiar with, and so acquire a deeper insight into the processes of their metabolism. ”

“ It is possible that, in a given disease, a normal organ is not decomposed, although the same organ is readily attacked, if it has already undergone particular pathological changes. Thus it is quite possible that, for instance, a normal thyroid gland would not be decomposed by Basedow serum, while a gland originating from a morbus Basedowi would be subject to decomposition. Just as every case examined has to be thoroughly tested by clinical means, and its further course closely followed up, so also must the substrate to be employed be characterized exactly. ”

“ How can we explain this different mode of behaviour, according to whether we introduce such disharmonious substances, or whether the organism itself supplies them? There are various possibilities to be considered. In the first place the cell may give off the substances in question only in minute quantities, a condition which we are unable to imitate. Our methods of interference are always brutal, and at once produce pathological conditions. ”

“ We may imagine that a ferment is directed against a simpler product of decomposition, and yet that it attacks at the same time a more complicated molecule, in so far as the group through which it attacks the substrate is actually present therein and within reach. ”

“ For some years certain ideas prevail, only to recede as soon as a new impulse or a new success in the domain of physics and chemistry directs a host of workers into new paths. We drill and work until a new gallery is driven into the rock of puzzles which is found in every cell. ”

“ Doubtless there are, in an organism composed of cell groups, numerous kinds of cells which can live without having reciprocal relations with other cells, exactly in the same way as a single individual can isolate itself from its stock and still continue life for a certain time. ”

“ But all our experience, hitherto, has proved, that even those cells which are constructed on a simple plan morphologically do, when studied from a purely chemical point of view, show exceedingly complicated relations. Indeed, the study of the processes of metabolism in unicellular forms of life is a study all the more difficult, in comparison with that of more complicated organisms, in that, in the former, it is so difficult to separate the actually absorbed materials from the metabolic by-products, and these again from the secretory or excretory products. ”

“ The host directs its struggle, not only against the living micro-organism, but also against the particles which appear with the decay of the dead organism, and more particularly against the intermediate products which originate during the preparation of the nutritive medium. The organism attacks every point with its ferments, and tries to decompose or reconstruct anything that is disharmonious with its structure or configuration, or even its physical properties. ”