John Percival Postgate

“ There being no Indicative of the Indefinite Second Person (§355) the Subjunctive is used instead: standum est in lĕctō sī quid dē summō pĕtās one must stand on the sofa if one wants anything from the top.
If any other person is used, the Ind. is necessary. Hence: sī quĭd pĕtĭmŭs or sī quĭd pĕtĭtŭr.
(b) The Indicative is used regularly in phrases like longum est it would be long.
(c) The Subjunctive (especially in the Secondary Tenses) is occasionally replaced by an expression in the Indicative, which means nearly the same as the Subjunctive. ”

“ Who doubts that there are riches in virtue?
As a Negative Pronoun can supply a Subject to the Dependent Sentence, quīn may be used instead of quī, quae, quŏd ('Nom.) . . . nōn, § 400 (c) , nēmo est quīn dŏlĕ ăt "There is no one but grieves (= quī nōn dŏlĕăt) . But an Object cannot be so supplied. So we must have nēmo est guem nōn dŏlĕăt "There is no one but he grieves for."
§ 413. Translation of That.—The English that must be differently translated into Latin according to its sense:
(1) After words of saying and thinking by Infinitive and Accusative, § 206. ”

“ The Verbs which take a Secondary Predicate (Adjective or Noun) are those of naming, thinking, making, 'choosing, and showing. In the Active the Predicate agrees with the Direct Object, and in the Passive with the Subject, according to the rules of Concord.
Acc., bŏnum tē vŏcās? do you call yourself good? Caesar dīctātōrem sē fēcĭt Cæsar made himself dictator ”

“ The Subjunctive of Imagination (Negative nōn) is used of events which it is thought might happen or might have happened. [97]
The Primary Tenses refer to the Future, and are to be translated by can, might, should, or would.
The Secondary Tenses generally refer to the Past, and are to be translated by should have or would have. Sometimes they refer to the Present, and are to be translated by should or would:
1. Quĭs tē dŭbĭtĕt sĕquī? who can hesitate to follow you? quĭs dŭbĭtāssĕt Caesărem sĕqui? ”

“ A vowel before two consonants is generally to be pronounced short as in ĕstis you are; but sometimes long as fēstus festal. A vowel is always long before ns, nf and gn; also before x, ct when they come from gs, gt, and before ps, pt, when they come from bs, bt; as, rēxi, rēctus; scrīpsī, scrīptus.
Final vowels and final -m preceded by a vowel, were very slightly pronounced if the next word began with a vowel or h. In this position they are said to be "cut off," and are not counted in verse. Thus iliā undā is scanned as if ill' undā, māgnum hŏmĭnem as if māgn' hŏmĭnem. ”

“ The Enclitics, which are always appended to a word. These are -quĕ, -vĕ, -nĕ and the Prep, cum when it governs Personal, and usually when it governs Relative Pronouns, as sēcum, quĭbuscum. The Indefinite Pronoun quĭs anyone, and the Adverbs quŏ anywhither, quā anywhere, derived from it. The Adverbs or Conjunctions vērō, autem but, ĭgĭtŭr therefore, ĕnim for, usually stand second in a sentence. Quŏquĕ too, quĭdem indeed, follow the word they emphasise. Tămen usually stands first in a sentence; but if it emphasises a particular word, it follows that word. ”

“ Only Transitive Verbs which take a Direct Acc. have a Gerundive, ūtendus is found because ūtŏr once took an Acc.; so frŭendŭs, pŏtiundŭs, etc. paenĭtendŭs to be regretted, pŭdendŭs to be ashamed of, are irregularities.
Participles.
§ 364. As already said, the Participles express time relative to that of the leading Verb.
The Present Participle expresses an action still going on. The Perfect expresses an action that is finished; but it is often to be translated by an English Present Participle, the English idiom being less exact than the Latin. ”

“ Adverbs (including non) and Oblique Cases precede the Verbs or Adjectives to which they belong. Prepositions always precede the Cases [107] In phrases consisting of a Noun with an Adjective and other Complements, the Adjective is generally put first, the Noun last, and the other Complements in between. These rules are illustrated by the following sentence:—
§ 437. Notice that the order of words in a sentence is not affected if its form is changed through its becoming part of another sentence. ”

“ I. Syllables containing a vowel or diphthong immediately followed by another vowel or h are short as via, trahis, priest.
Except (a) G. Sing, in -āī (1st Decl.) , -ēī (5th Decl.) ; (b) Gen. of Pronouns, etc., in -īns; alīus, solīus, neutrīus always; -ī̆us in the rest as ipsī̆us, but usually alterĭus; (c) dīus, Dī̆ana, Gāius, ēheu. ō̆he; many Greek words as āer, Cōus; (d) ī in fīo except before ĕr as fĭeri.
2. Vowels followed by i (consonant) are long, as ēia; bĭ-iugus, quadrĭ-igus are exceptions. ”

“ Rare or Poetical Uses.— (a) Some other deviations (chiefly poetical) are due to a desire to be brief or emphatic.
(b) In old and poetical Latin the Primary tenses of the Subjunctive are frequently used (instead of Secondary) to denote Imaginary Suppositions relating to the Present: tū sī hīc sīs, ălĭtĕr sentĭās if you were here, you would think otherwise. ”

“ The Gerund of Intransitive Verbs and the Gerundive of Transitive Verbs are used in the Nominative to express Obligation. In indirect construction the Nom. becomes Acc.
In old Latin the Gerund of Transitive Verbs is sometimes used with the Ace.: poenās in mortĕ tĭmendum est we must fear punishment in (after) death. This is not to be imitated.
§ 361. The Subject of the Action of the Gerund or Gerundive is sometimes put in the Abl with ăb instead of the Dat. ”

“ I sleep all the winter.
§ 357. Verbs without Passive.—These are chiefly Deponent. The Passive is supplied either (a) by phrases with Verbal Nouns, as admīrāri admire, admīrātiōnī (Pred. Dat.) essĕ be admired, suspĭcārī suspect, in suspīciōnem vĕnīre (come to) be suspected; or. (b) by other Verbs of allied meaning, as frŭi use, enjoy, Pass, percĭpī. For the Passive of perdĕre, vēndĕre, see page 139, n.7 făcĕre has Pass, fĭĕri, except in compounds as effĭcī.
The Gerund and Gerundive.
§ 358. The Gerund is a Verbal Noun governing the same case as the Verb from which it comes. ”

“ The Acc. of Neuter Pronouns and Adjectives can be used when Nouns are not admissible (see §§ 132, 453, 454) .
§ 336. Many English Nouns, however, denoting position or quantity, are rendered by an Adjective in Latin.
§ 337. Comparison.— (1) Where two qualities in the same person or thing are compared the Adjectives (or Adverbs) which express them are often both put in the Comparative: cōntiō grātiŏr quam vēriŏr a speech more true than pleasant; but also (as Eng.) măgis grātă quam vēră.
(2) plūs, amplius more, minus less, are often used without quam: plūs decem pedēs more than ten feet. ”

“ Wishes. The Infinitive of a Verb of wishing with another Verb depending on it. See § 430, ex. (7) .
Dependent Sentences. Always Subjunctive.
§ 423. (B) Changes of Person. If a speech is reported by a "third person,"
Hīc and istĕ generally become illĕ, hīc here ĭbĭ or illīc.
Illĕ is used of the more emphatic Person, Second or Third as the case may be ; is of the less emphatic one.
§ 424. (C) Changes of Time.
If a speech is reported some time after it has been delivered, the Primary Tenses in Dependent Sentences are regularly changed to the corresponding Secondary Tenses. ”

“ Rare or Poetical Uses of the Infinitive.
(1) As a Complement to Adjectives, instead of other Verbal Nouns: cŭpĭdŭs mŏrī eager to die (for mŏrĭendī) ; dīgnŭm lĕgī worthy to be read (for lēctū) .
(2) As a Complement to Verbs of Movement, instead of the Supine in -um: pĕcŭs ēgĭt altōs vīsĕrĕ montēs he drove his herd to visit the high mountans. ”

“ In the Active the Future Participle with fŭĕrim is used, (B) In the Passive pŏtŭĕrim with the Infinitive is used, or fŭĕrim with the Gerund or Gerundive.
(a) Adĕō părātă ăpŭd mălōs sēdĭtĭoŭt rĕdeuntem ā cēnā Othōnem raptūrī fŭĕrint so ripe (was) an outbreak amongst the disloyal that they would have caught up Otho when returning from dinner; sī ĭd făcĕrĕ vŏlŭissĕs, nōn dŭbĭto quīn omnĭs ăd tē conversūră fŭerĭt multĭtūdō if you had been able to do this, I do not doubt- that the whole multitude would have turned to you. ”

“ Apparent exceptions to the Sequence of Tenses.—These occur when it is important to denote the exact time of an action, and a false impression would be conveyed if it were referred to the time of the leading Verb.
The Subjunctive Mood.
§ 393. Consecutive Sentences.—These denote the consequence or result of an action. This may be either— (a) An Action Caused, or
(b) An Action Prevented.
(a) An Action caused is expressed by ŭt: sōl efficit ŭt omnĭă flōrĕant the sun makes all things bloom; quĭs tam dēmēns ŭt sŭa vŏluntātĕ maerĕăt? who is so senseless as to grieve of his own choice? ”

“ Gerund and Gerundive.—In the Third and Fourth Conjugations these often end in -undum, -undus, instead of -endum, -endus, as făciund-um, făciund-us.
Derivative Verbs.
§ 295. Derivative Verbs are those formed from other Verbs, and from Nouns or Adjectives. The latter are sometimes called "Denominative" Verbs. The following are important classes of Derivative Verbs.
Desiderative Verbs, expressing desire for an action. These are of the Fourth Conjugation, and are formed from the Supine base of the original Verb by the inflexion -ŭriō, -ărīrĕ; e.g. (ĕd-ere, es-um eat) , ēs-ărīre be hungry. ”

“ Accusative.—This can only be used without an Adj. if the Noun has a force of its own: servĭt servĭtūtem he slaves as a slave.
In place of the Adj. and Cognate Noun, another Noun may be used to define the action: vincĕrĕ causam to win a case (to gain a victory in a case) ; Glaucum saltārĕ (poet.) to dance the "Glaucus" (dance) .
§ 305. Accusative with Verbs compounded with Prepositions.—Verbs may take the Ace. because they are compounded with Prepositions which take the Acc.
So (a) Intransitive Verbs: ădŏrīrī hostēs to rise against (to attack) the enemy ”

“ Sometimes, if there is no ambiguity, an important word in the sentence: Hannĭbălem sŭī cīvēs ā cīvĭtātĕ ēiēcērunt his own fellow-citizens expelled Hannibal from the state; sŭum cuiquĕ reddāmus 'let us give each man his own.
(c) In Dependent sentences sē and sŭŭs may refer to the subject of the Principal sentence, especially in Final sentences and in Indirect Narrative. They are then translated in English by him, her, etc. ōrant Caesărem ŭt sĭbĭ subvĕnĭant they implore Cæsar to help them. ”

“ So quam-quam, etsī, like Eng. though in the sense of and yet. quamquam, etsī, and quamvĭs are also used with single words: perfĭdă, sed quamvīs perfĭdă, cāră tămen untrue, but though untrue, beloved still.
§ 353. Negative Conjunctions.—These are nĕquĕ or nĕc, and neve or neu. For their use see § 209.
Sometimes a Positive expression is joined to a Negative one. In this case English generally uses an Adversative Conjunction, but Latin a Copulative one: nĕc crīmĭnă, prŏbăt ĕt iūdĭcēs īnsectătŭr he does not establish the charges, but attacks the judges. ”

“ Since: quae cum ĭtă sint, pērgĕ "Since these things are so, proceed."
(d) Notwithstanding that, although: Phōcīōn semper fŭĭt paupĕr, cum divĭtĭssĭmŭs essĕ possĕt "Phocion remained always poor, though he could have been very rich."
Note.—The original sense of cum was purely Temporal, when; and it took the Indicative. Its use with the Subjunctive is due to the growth of a closer connexion between the two clauses, and so the Subjunctive belongs to the type (B) § 187. ”

“ Syllables containing a vowel or diphthong 'pronounced long are long. Syllables containing a vowel pronounced short are short, unless they are lengthened by Position.
h counts for nothing in determining quantity.
§ 444. Position.—1. Syllables containing a short vowel are long by Position if it is followed in the same word by x or z or any combination of consonants except pr, br, cr, gr, dr, tr, fr : pl, cl, fl. ”

“ With meaning together with, and denoting the Accompaniment, is expressed by cum (with the Abl.) , cum ĕquĭtātū vĕnĭt he comes with his cavalry, cum febrĕ rĕdĭīt he returned with a fever.
(3) With denoting the manner, is expressed by the Abl. if an epithet is added, otherwise by cum with Abl., see §321*. But it must be often translated by an Adverb, as cautē ăgĕrĕ to act with caution.
§ 332. Construction of 'opŭs est, ūsŭs est.— ŏpŭs est there is need, lit. there is work, takes a Dat. of the Person needing. ”

“ In Negative Requests (Prohibitions) (l) the Imper. is not used in Prose, nor (2) the 2nd Person Pres. Subj. with nē except as in § 208. But (3) the Fut. Ind. with nōn is used in all persons, as hōc nōn făciēs you shall (or will) not do this. So also (4) the Subj. of Imagination in Recommendations (see above) . Lastly, periphrases are found, as nōli īrĕ do not go, căvē ĕās beware of going, and (in the poets) dēsĭnĕ cease, parcĕ spare, etc., with Infinitives.
DEPENDENT SENTENCES.
The Sequence of Tenses. ”

“ A Preposition must be used if the neighbourhood of a town is meant: ăd Brundĭsĭum flexĭt ĭtĕr he bent his way towards Brundisium; Caesăr ā Gergovĭā discēssissĕ dīcebātūr 'Cæsar was said to have gone away from (the walls of) Gergovia. ”

“ Sing.—In these cases -ēī is generally shortened to ĕē if the base ends in a Consonant, as fid-ĕī, r-ĕī.
The ėı was often further contracted in old poets to the diphthong ei, and in Classical times to -e as fĭd-ē. plēbēs, another form of plēbs, has a Gen. plēbi, as in plēbi scitum a decree of the Plebs.
Irregular Nouns.
§ 279. Nouns often written as one Word but declined as two.—păter-fămĭliās m. head of a household (lit. father of a family, familiās being an old Gen. of familia, Declen. 1) , Acc. pătrem-fămĭliās, and so on. So also māter-fămĭliās f. filius-fămilĭas m. ”

“ By ŭt . . nōn, after a Positive sentence: ĭtă mĭsĕr est ŭt mortem nōn tĭmĕăt he is so wretched that he does not fear death.
By ŭt . . nōn or quīn, after a Negative or quasi-Negative one: nēmo ădĕō fĕrĕs est ŭt nōn mītescĕrĕ possĭt no one is so wild that he cannot be civilised, făcĕrĕ nōn possum quīn cottīdĭē ad tē littĕrās mīttam I cannot help sending you a letter every day (lit. I cannot act so as not to, etc.) .
nē and ŭt nē are sometimes used in Consecutive as well as in Final sentences.
§ 394. Verbs of Preventing.——Verbs of Preventing and Declining take nē ”