Charles E. Bennett

“ A Neuter Pronoun or Adjective often stands as subject with opus as predicate. Thus:—
hōc mihi opus est, this is necessary for me.
b. An ordinary substantive rarely stands as subject. Thus dux nōbīs opus est is a rare form of expression.
c. Note the occasional use of a perfect passive participle with opus est; as,—
opus est properātō, there is need of haste. ”

“ When an Indirect Question becomes an apodosis in a conditional sentence of the Third Type, -ūrus fuerim (rarely -ūrus fuissem) is used; as,—
quaerō, num, sī hōc dīxissēs, errātūrus fuerīs (or fuissēs) .
c. Potuī, when it becomes a dependent apodosis in sentences of this Type, usually changes to the Perfect Subjunctive; as,—
concursū tōtīus civitātis dēfēnsī sunt, ut frīgidissimōs quoque ōrātōrēs populī studia excitāre potuerint, they were defended before a gathering of all the citizens, so that the interest of the people would have been enough to excite even the most apathetic orators. ”

“ CHAPTER II.—Syntax of Nouns. SUBJECT.
166. The Subject of a Finite Verb (i.e. any form of the Indicative, Subjunctive, or Imperative) is in the Nominative Case.
1. The Subject may be—
a) A Noun or Pronoun; as,—
puer scrībit, the boy writes;
hīc scrībit, this man writes.
b) An Infinitive; as,—
decōrum est prō patriā morī, to die for one's county is a noble thing.
c) A Clause; as,—
opportūnē accīdit quod vīdistī, it happened opportunely that you saw.
2. A Personal Pronoun as Subject is usually implied in the Verb and is not separately expressed; as,—
scrībō, I write ”

“ The Latin is much more exact in the use of the Future than is the English. We say: 'If he comes, I shall be glad,' where we really mean: 'If he shall come,' etc. In such cases the Latin rarely admits the Present, but generally employs the Future.
2. Sometimes the Future has Imperative force ”

“ In early Latin, mēd and tēd occur as Accusative and Ablative forms.
II. REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS.
85. These refer to the subject of the sentence or clause in which they stand; like myself, yourself, in 'I see myself,' etc. They are declined as follows:—
1. The Reflexive of the Third Person serves for all genders and for both numbers. Thus sui may mean, of himself, herself, itself, or of themselves; and so with the other forms.
2. All of the Reflexive Pronouns have at times a reciprocal force; as,—
inter sē pugnant, they fight with each other. ”

“ Where the English says 'ought to have done,' 'might have done,' etc., the Latin uses dēbuī, oportuit, potuī (dēbēbam, oportēbat, poteram) , with the Present Infinitive; as,—
dēbuit dīcere, he ought to have said (lit. owed it to say) ;
opōrtuit venīre, he ought to have come;
potuit vidēre, he might have seen.
a. Oportuit, volō, nōlō (and in poetry some other verbs) , may take a Perfect Infinitive instead of the Present; as,—
hōc jam prīdem factum esse oportuit, this ought long ago to have been done. ”

“ Sometimes a subordinate clause is such only in its external form, and in sense is principal. It then takes the Infinitive with Subject Accusative. This occurs especially in case of relative clauses, where quī is equivalent to et hīc, nam hīc, etc. ”

“ With subjects of different genders the participle in the compound tenses follows the same principles as laid down for predicate adjectives. See § 235, B, 2.
VOICES.
256. 1. The Passive Voice sometimes retains traces of its original middle or reflexive meaning; as,—
ego nōn patiar eum dēfendī, I shall not allow him to defend himself.
2. In imitation of Greek usage many perfect passive participles are used by the poets as indirect middles, i.e. the subject is viewed as acting not upon itself, but as doing something in his own interest; as,—
vēlātus tempora, having veiled his temples. ”

“ Several Special Verbs; viz. moneō, admoneō, commoneō, cōgō, accūsō, arguō, and a few others. These admit only a Neuter Pronoun or Adjective as Accusative of the Thing; as,—
hōc tē moneō, I give you this advice;
mē id accūsās, you bring this accusation against me;
id cōgit nōs nātūra, nature compels us (to) this.
e) One Verb of concealing, cēlō; as,—
nōn tē cēlāvī sermōnem, I have not concealed the conversation from you. ”

“ The Indirect Reflexive is mainly restricted to those clauses which express the thought, not of the author, but of the subject of the principal clause.
2. The Genitive suī is regularly employed, like meī and tuī, as an Objective Genitive, e.g. oblītus suī, forgetful of himself; but it occasionally occurs—particularly in post-Augustan writers—in place of the Possessive suus; as, fruitur fāmā suī, he enjoys his own fame.
3. Sē and suus are sometimes used in the sense, one's self, one's own, where the reference is not to any particular person; as,—
sē amāre, to love one's self ”

“ When an Adjective limits one noun it agrees with it in Gender, Number, and Case.
1. Two Adjectives in the Singular may limit a noun in the Plural, as; prīma et vīcēsima legiōnēs, the first and twentieth legions.
2. A Predicate Adjective may stand in the Neuter when its Subject is Masculine or Feminine and denotes a thing; as,—
omnium rērum mors est extrēmum, death is the end of all things.
235. Agreement with Two or More Nouns.
A. AGREEMENT AS TO NUMBER.
1. When the Adjective is Attributive, it regularly agrees in number with the nearest noun; as,—
pater tuus et māter, your father and mother ”

“ Dative. The Dative of the Gerund is used—
a) With Adjectives; as,—
aqua ūtilis est bibendō, water is useful for drinking.
b) With Verbs (rarely) ; as,—
adfuī scrībendō, I was present at the writing.
3. Accusative. The Accusative of the Gerund is used only with Prepositions, chiefly ad and in to denote purpose; as,—
homō ad agendum nātus est, man is born for action.
4. Ablative. The Ablative of the Gerund is used—
a) Without a Preposition, as an Ablative of Means, Cause, etc. (see §§ 218, 219) ; as,—
mēns discendō alitur et cōgitandō, the mind is nourished by learning and reflection. ”

“ In English we often use of where there is no relation of whole to part. In such cases the Latin is more exact, and does not use the Genitive; as,—
quot vōs estis, how many of you are there?
trecentī conjūrāvimus, three hundred of us have conspired (i.e. we, three hundred in number) .
2. The Genitive of the Whole is used also with the Nominative or Accusative Singular Neuter of Pronouns, or of Adjectives used substantively; also with the Adverbs parum, satis, and partim when used substantively; as,—
quid cōnsilī, what purpose? ”

“ Similarly a subordinate clause dependent upon an Infinitive is put in the Subjunctive when the two form one closely united whole; as,—
mōs est Athēnīs quotannīs in cōntiōne laudārī eōs quī sint in proeliīs interfectī, it is the custom at Athens every year for those to be publicly eulogized who have been killed in battle. (Here the notion of 'praising those who fell in battle' forms an inseparable whole.)
NOUN AND ADJECTIVE FORMS OF THE VERB.
325. These are the Infinitive, Participle, Gerund, and Supine. ”

“ When the name of the person who is ordered or forbidden to do something is omitted, the Infinitive with jubeō and vetō is put in the Passive; as, Caesar pontem fierī jussit.
III. With patior and sinō, permit, allow; as,—
nūllō sē implicārī negōtiō passus est, he did not permit himself to be involved in any difficulty.
IV. With volō, nōlō, mālō, cupiō, when the Subject of the Infinitive is different from that of the governing verb; as,—
nec mihi hunc errōrem extorquērī volō, nor do I wish this error to be wrested from me ”

“ A Verb is a word which asserts something; as, est, he is; amat, he loves. The Inflection of Verbs is called Conjugation.
94. Verbs have Voice, Mood, Tense, Number, and Person:—
1. Two Voices,—Active and Passive.
2. Three Moods,—Indicative, Subjunctive, Imperative.
3. Six Tenses,—
But the Subjunctive lacks the Future and Future Perfect; while the Imperative employs only the Present and Future.
4. Two Numbers,—Singular and Plural.
5. Three Persons,—First, Second, and Third.
95. These make up the so-called Finite Verb. Besides this, we have the following Noun and Adjective Forms:—
1. ”

“ Final o is regularly long, but is short:—
a) In egŏ, duŏ, modŏ (only) , citŏ.
b) Rarely in the First Person Singular of the Verb, and in Nominatives of the Third Declension; as, amŏ, leŏ.
c) In a few compounds beginning with the Preposition pro, especially before f; as prŏfundere, prŏficīscī, prŏfugere.
5. Final u is always long.
B. Final Syllables ending in a Consonant.
364. 1. Final syllables ending in any other consonant than s are short. The following words, however, have a long vowel: sāl, sōl, Lār, pār, vēr, fūr, dīc, dūc, ēn, nōn, quīn, sīn, sīc, cūr. Also the adverbs hīc, illīc, istīc. ”

“ An Infinitive or clause sometimes occurs in the Ablative Absolute construction, especially in Livy and later writers; as,—
audītō eum fūgisse, when it was heard that he had fled.
4. A noun or pronoun stands in the Ablative Absolute construction only when it denotes a different person or thing from any in the clause in which it stands. Exceptions to this principle are extremely rare.
LOCATIVE USES OF THE ABLATIVE.
Ablative of Place. A. Place where.
228. The place where is regularly denoted by the Ablative with a preposition; as,—
in urbe habitat, he dwells in the city. ”

“ Nouns, Adjectives, Pronouns, Verbs, Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections; but the Latin has no article.
11. Of these eight parts of speech the first four are capable of Inflection, i.e. of undergoing change of form to express modifications of meaning. In case of Nouns, Adjectives, and Pronouns, this process is called Declension; in case of verbs, Conjugation.
CHAPTER I.—Declension. A. NOUNS.
12. A Noun is the name of a person, place, thing, or quality; as, Caesar, Caesar; Rōma, Rome; penna, feather; virtūs, courage.
1. Nouns are either Proper or Common. ”

“ Genitive with Impersonal Verbs.
209. 1. The Impersonals pudet, paenitet, miseret, taedet, piget take the Accusative of the person affected, along with the Genitive of the person or thing toward whom the feeling is directed; as,—
pudet mē tuī, I am ashamed of you (lit. it shames me of you) ;
paenitet mē hūjus factī, I repent of this act;
eum taedet vītae, he is weary of life;
pauperum tē miseret, you pity the poor.
a. Instead of the Genitive of the thing we often find an Infinitive or Neuter Pronoun used as subject of the verb. Thus;—
mē paenitet hōc fēcisse, I repent of having done this ”

“ But neque (for nēve) is sometimes used in a second Purpose Clause when ut stands in the first, and, after the Augustan era, even when the first clause is introduced by nē.
f. Purpose Clauses sometimes stand in apposition with a preceding noun or pronoun: as,—
hāc causā, ut pācem habērent, on this account, that they might have peace.
2. A Relative Pronoun (quī) or Adverb (ubi, unde, quō) is frequently used to introduce a Purpose Clause; as,—
Helvētiī lēgātōs mittunt, quī dīcerent, the Helvetii sent envoys to say (lit. who should say) ”

“ Occasionally the Historical Perfect is used of a general truth ('Gnomic Perfect') .
Pluperfect Indicative.
263. The Latin Pluperfect, like the English Past Perfect, denotes an act completed in the past; as,—
Caesar Rhēnum trānsīre dēcrēverat, sed nāvēs deerant, Caesar had decided to cross the Rhine, but had no boats.
a. In those verbs whose Perfect has Present force (§ 262, A) , the Pluperfect has the force of an Imperfect; as,—
nōveram, I knew. ”

“ Intransitive Verbs may be used impersonally in the passive; as,—
curritur, people run (lit. it is run) ;
ventum est, he (they, etc.) came (lit. it was come) .
TENSES. TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE.
257. 1. The Latin tenses express two distinct notions:—
a) The period of time to which the action belongs: Present, Past, or Future.
b) The kind of action: Undefined, Going on, or Completed.
The Latin with its six tenses is able to express each of the three kinds of action for each of the three periods of time (making practically nine tenses) . ”

“ The most important are sum, dō, edō, ferō, volō, nōlō, mālō, eō, fīō. The peculiarity of these Verbs is that they append the personal endings in many forms directly to the stem, instead of employing a connecting vowel, as fer-s (2d Sing. of fer-ō) , instead of fer-i-s. They are but the relics of what was once in Latin a large class of Verbs.
125. The Inflection of sum has already been given. Its various compounds are inflected in the same way. They are—
NOTE.—Prōsum is compounded of prōd (earlier form of prō) and sum; the d disappears before consonants, as prōsumus; but prōdestis. ”

“ Sometimes quīs.
[27] An ablative quī occurs in quīcum, with whom.
[28] Where the Perfect Participle is not in use, the Future Active Participle, if it occurs, is given as one of the Principal Parts.
[29] The Perfect Participle is wanting in sum.
[30] The meanings of the different tenses of the Subjunctive are so many and so varied, particularly in subordinate clauses, that no attempt can be made to give them here. For fuller information the pupil is referred to the Syntax. ”

“ With similis the Genitive is the commoner construction in Cicero, when the reference is to living objects; as,—
fīlius patris simillimus est, the son is exactly like his father;
meī similis, like me; vestrī similis, like you.
When the reference is to things, both Genitive and Dative occur; as,—
mors somnō (or somnī) similis est, death is like sleep. ”

“ Here also belong phrases of the type: nūlla causa est cūr, quīn; nōn est cūr, etc.; nihil est cūr, etc.; as,—
nūlla causa est cūr timeam, there is no reason why I should fear (originally Deliberative: why should I fear? There's no reason) ;
nihil est quīn dīcam, there is no reason why I should not say.
8. Many of the above classes of verbs at times take the simple Subjunctive without ut. In such cases we must not recognize any omission of ut, but simply an earlier form of expression which existed before the ut-clause arose. This is regularly the case with necesse est, licet, and oportet ”

“ NOTE.—It is to be borne in mind that these verbs do not take the Dative by virtue of their apparent English equivalence, but simply because they are intransitive, and adapted to an indirect object. Some verbs of the same apparent English equivalence are transitive and govern the Accusative; as, juvō, laedō, dēlectō. Thus: audentēs deus juvat, God helps the bold; nēminem laesit he injured no one.
b. Verbs of this class are used in the passive only impersonally; as,—
tibi parcitur, you are spared ”

“ The Subject Accusative of the Infinitive is sometimes omitted when it refers to the same person as the subject of the leading verb, or can easily be supplied from the context; as,—
cum id nescīre Māgō dīceret, when Mago said he did not know this (for sē nescīre) .
Interrogative Sentences.
315. 1. Real questions of the Direct Discourse, upon becoming indirect, are regularly put in the Subjunctive; as,—
Ariovistus Caesarī respondit: sē prius in Galliam vēnisse quam populum Rōmānum. Quid sibi vellet? ”

“ For declension of amāns, see § 70, 3.
[36] Fuī, fuistī, etc., are sometimes used for sum, es, etc. So fueram, fuerās, etc., for eram, etc.; fuerō, etc., for erō, etc.
[37] Fuerim, etc., are sometimes used for sim; so fuissem, etc., for essem.
[38] In actual usage passive imperatives occur only in deponents (§ 112) .
[39] Strictly speaking, the Present Stem always ends in a Thematic Vowel (ĕ or ŏ) ; as, dīc-ĕ-, dīc-ŏ-; amā-ĕ-, amā-ŏ-. But the multitude of phonetic changes involved prevents a scientific treatment of the subject here. See the author's Latin Language. ”