George Martin Lane

“ Oertel has proceeded upon the ideas that in a school grammar, even an advanced one, phonology should play a subordinate part; that nothing should be introduced that cannot be illustrated from such Latin and Greek as are available to the student; and that those points should be emphasized which assist in the analyzing of compounds and in the understanding of word-formation and inflection. ”

“ The pronoun of the first person, ego, I, of the second person, tū, thou, and the reflexive pronoun, suī, sē, himself, herself, itself, themselves, are declined as follows:
645. The nominatives ego and tū, and the accusatives mē, tē and sē, have no case ending. The last vowel of ego is rarely long in Plautus, long or short in Lucilius. The nominative ego has a different stem from that of its other cases, and the plurals of ego and tū have a different stem from that of the singular. ”

“ When the original words of a quotation or question are changed to conform to the construction of the sentence in which they are quoted, it is called Indirect Discourse.
1724. In the complete form of indirect discourse, the subjunctive is subordinate to an infinitive or an accusative with the infinitive, dependent on a verb of saying or thinking (2175) : as,
negat Epicūrus iūcundē posse vīvī, nisi cum virtūte vīvātur, TD. 3, 49, Epicurus avers there is no living happily, without living virtuously; directly, iūcundē vīvī nōn potest, nisi cum virtūte vīvitur. ”

“ Some verbs have no subject at all in the third person singular; these are called Impersonal. Such are: a few verbs expressing ‘operations of nature,’ five verbs of ‘mental distress,’ and any verb used to denote merely the occurrence of action, without reference to any doer: as,
(a.) lūcet, it is light, lūcēscit, it is getting light; pluit, it rains, fulget, it lightens, tonat, it thunders. (b.) miseret, it moves to pity, paenitet, it repents, piget, it grieves, pudet, it puts to shame, taedet, it bores. ”

“ When the subject of the infinitive is implied in a dative, a predicate noun may also be in the dative: as,
mihī̆ neglegentī esse nōn licet, Att. 1, 17, 6, it will not do for me to be careless. With a dative and licet, however, the predicate is sometimes in the accusative: as, quod sī cīvī Rōmānō licet esse Gādītānum, Balb. 29, now if a Roman is allowed to be a Gaditanian. Regularly so, when the subject is indefinite and not expressed (2212) : as, haec praescrīpta servantem licet magnificē vīvere, Off. 1, 92, a man who holds to these rules may live a noble life. ”

“ But separate forms to mark the sharp distinction which exists between shall and will in the English future and future perfect are utterly unknown in Latin: thus, in occīdar equidem, sed victus nōn perībō, Cornif. 4, 65, I shall be murdered, to be sure, but I will not die a vanquished man, the difference between the prediction contained in I shall, and the determination contained in I will, cannot be expressed in Latin by the future indicative. ”

“ In simple sentences, the tenses of the subjunctive correspond in general to the same tenses of the indicative. But the present has a future meaning; the imperfect sometimes expresses past, sometimes present action; and the perfect sometimes expresses past action, and sometimes future action. ”

“ A perfect participle in agreement with a substantive often contains the leading idea, and may be translated like an abstract substantive with a genitive dependent. The nominative is rarely thus used. The present participle in this use is rare, the future late. ”

“ Rhythm is by no means confined to verse. Music, dancing, and even the regular beat of a trip-hammer, have rhythm. Particular kinds of movement are often called rhythms, as anapaestic rhythms, dactylic rhythms, &c.
2512. Metre (Gr. μέτρον, a measure) is the definite measurement of verse by feet, lines, strophes, systems, &c.
2513. Latin verse is quantitative, the rhythm depending upon the quantity of the syllables (but see 2548) . The ictus naturally falls upon a long syllable (or its equivalent) . English verse, on the other hand, is accentual, its rhythm depending upon the accent of words. ”

“ When a prohibition is expressed in the subjunctive, the second person of the present is often used in old Latin, sometimes the perfect. Later, however, the perfect is generally prevalent. In the classical period, the present is almost confined to poetry. For the imperative in prohibitions, see 1581-1586. ”

“ II. COMPOSITION OF VERBS. (A.) REAL COMPOUNDS.
391. Real Compounds are direct compounds of a verb with a preposition; the root vowel or diphthong of the verb is often weakened (102) : as,
per-agere, put through, accomplish; ab-igere, drive away; ex-quīrere, seek out. The prefix, which was originally a separate adverb modifying the verb, is in poetry sometimes separated from the verb by another word; the disyllabic prepositions in particular often remain as juxtaposed adverbs (396) . ”

“ The relative pronoun, like the English relative who, which, was developed from the interrogative. Originally, the relative sentence precedes, and the main sentence follows, just as in question and answer.
Thus, quae mūtat, ea corrumpit, Fin. 1, 21, what he changes, that he spoils, is a modification of the older question and answer: quae mūtat? ea corrumpit, what does he change? that he spoils. With adjective relatives, the substantive is expressed in both members, in old or formal Latin: as, quae rēs apud nostrōs nōn erant, eārum rērum nōmina nōn poterant esse ūsitāta, Cornif. ”

“ A Stem is that part of a word which contains its meaning, and is either a root alone or more commonly a root with an addition called a Formative Suffix.
Thus, in the word ducis, leader’s, the stem, which is identical with the root duc-, means leader; a root thus serving as a stem is called a Root Stem; in ductōris, leader’s, the stem is formed by the formative suffix -tōr-, denoting the agent, attached to the √duc-. ”

“ A form nec is used rarely in old Latin in the sense of nōn: as, tū dīs nec rēctē dīcis, Pl. B. 119, thou dost abuse the gods, i.e. nōn rēctē or male dīcis. After Plautus’s time, nec for nōn occurs in a few set combinations, such as nec opīnāns, not expecting, and, from Livy on, necdum, not yet, i.e. nōndum.
1447. The form nē usually introduces an imperative or a subjunctive, as will be explained further on. But nē is also used in the combination nē . . . quidem, not even, not . . . ”

“ In a main sentence, the indicative present, future, and future perfect, and the imperative, are called Primary Tenses; the indicative imperfect, historical perfect, and pluperfect, and the infinitive of intimation, are called Secondary Tenses. The perfect definite and the present of vivid narration are sometimes regarded as primary tenses, oftener as secondary tenses. ”

“ A demonstrative, determinative, or relative pronoun used substantively takes the number and gender of the substantive it represents; the case depends on the construction of the clause in which it stands: as,
erant peditēs, quōs dēlēgerant; cum hīs in proeliīs versābantur; ad eōs sē recipiēbant; hī concurrēbant, 1, 48, 5, there were foot-soldiers whom they had picked out; with these men they kept company in action; upon them they would fall back; these people would always rally. ”

“ In old Latin, final s after a short vowel and before a consonant seems to have been reduced in sound or to have disappeared altogether. In the older inscriptions it is often omitted in the ending of the nominative singular -us, and in the pre-Ciceronian poets final s often does not make position (2468) . But such omission was considered vulgar in Cicero’s time (Cic. O. 161; Quint. 9, 4, 38) .
67. In the archaic period Latin s stood also for the voiced sibilant (English s in ease, z in zeal) , as in ASA, altar (154) .
68. t is always sounded as in time, never as in nation. ”

“ Greek stems in -o- are generally declined like Latin nouns, but in the singular sometimes have -os in the nominative, -on in the nominative or accusative neuter, rarely -ū in the genitive, or -ō in the feminine ablative. ”

“ In colloquial language, a comparative suffix is sometimes emphasized by the addition of magis: as, mollior magis, Pl. Aul. 422, more tenderer. And sometimes by a mixture of construction, the comparative is modified by aequē, like the positive: as, homo mē miserior nūllus est aequē, Pl. Mer. 335, there’s not a man so woebegone as I, for miserior alone, or aequē miser.
1464. The comparative with the ablative is particularly common, when a thing is illustrated by some striking typical object, usually an object of nature. ”

“ Verbs are sometimes arranged without regard to difference of kind, in the alphabetical order of the vowel before -s of the second person singular of the present indicative active, ā, ē, i, ī: thus, laudās, monēs, regis, audīs, sometimes called the first, second, third, and fourth conjugation respectively.
I. Primitive Verbs. 743. A few of the oldest and commonest verbs of everyday life have a bare root as stem in the present indicative or in parts of it; and some of them have other peculiarities; such are called Root Verbs, or by some, irregular (744-781) . ”

“ The present subjunctive is particularly common in exemplification. The perfect is sometimes used in the protasis, rarely in the apodosis: as,
sī pater fāna expīlet, indicetne id magistrātibus fīlius? Off. 3, 90, if a father should plunder temples, would the son report it to the magistrates? sī quis pater familiās supplicium nōn sūmpserit, utrum is clēmēns an crūdēlissimus esse videātur? C. 4, 12, assume for the sake of argument that a householder have not inflicted punishment, would he seem merciful, or a monster of cruelty? ”