Mandell Creighton

“ The good fortune which had hitherto attended Norfolk's matrimonial enterprises may to some extent explain the blind belief in himself which he showed in his scheme of marrying Mary Queen of Scots. In 1568, when Mary fled to England, Norfolk was again a widower, the richest man in England, popular and courted, but chafing under the sense that he had little influence over affairs. He had vainly striven against Cecil, who watched him cautiously, and he was just the man to be ensnared by his own vanity. Elizabeth was embarrassed how to deal with Mary. ”

“ His conception of the articles, as articles of peace and union, not necessarily articles of belief, paid no heed to the church as an organised society, and would have destroyed its corporate unity. His plan for toleration was founded upon the impossibility of any man attaining to more than relative certainty, and would have rendered zeal and enthusiasm impossible. In fact, Chillingworth's views, lofty as they were, laboured under the defects of an academic thinker whose experience of intellectual problems was larger than his knowledge of the world and of human nature. ”

“ Simeon, the Durham chronicler, describes Bishop William as learned in secular and theological literature, industrious in affairs, sufficient in the discharge of his episcopal duties, subtle in mind, a wise counsellor, and eloquent in speech. To the monks of Durham he was a kindly, prudent, and firm ruler, and they seem to have seen the best side of his character. In public affairs his subtlety led him into intrigue. During the reign of William I he was a valued counsellor of the king, of whom all men stood in awe. ”

“ He went to college friendless, and he continued as an undergraduate to live a solitary life. He was not understood by the authorities of his college, who could not sympathise with his preference for Matthew Paris over the classics. The study of modern history had not at that time taken root in Oxford, and Green did not make much use of such teaching as there was. He lived much by himself, wandering about among the antiquities of Oxford and its neighbourhood, recalling for himself the memories of the past, and exercising his imagination in combining them. ”

“ As bishop of London Grindal did not fulfil the expectations of Archbishop Parker, who had selected him for the post. He was too infirm of purpose and not sufficiently sure of his own position to hold any clear principles for building up the shattered fabric of the English church. The question was, How could a religious system be best maintained which, without any formal breach with the past, should be able to contain and direct the national life, which had been profoundly affected by new ideas alike in theology and politics? ”

“ Fiddes had all a student's heedlessness of ordinary prudence. He was continually in money difficulties, and left a wife and six children ill provided for. He was so forgetful of common things when absorbed in study that one night he was lost, and was discovered locked up in the Bodleian Library. He had a very retentive memory, which made his erudition seem greater than it really was. In spite of his physical infirmity he was valued in society and had many friends, both in Oxford and London. ”

“ Augustine, by means of an interpreter, preached to the king, who answered, 'Your words are fair, but of doubtful meaning; I cannot forsake what I have so long believed. But as you have come from far we will not molest you; you may preach, and gain as many as you can to your religion.' Ethelbert gave a worthy example of good sense and tolerance. He allowed Augustine to come to Canterbury, which the monks entered in procession, chanting the litany. ”

“ In fact the institution at Little Gidding did not profess to be the beginning of an order; it aimed at nothing but the organisation of a family life on the basis of putting devotion in the first place among practical duties. Ferrar had no special mission to mankind, nor passion for influencing others. He was not even desirous of doing much literary work, but contented himself with framing a harmony of the gospels and of the history of the Books of Kings and Chronicles. ”

“ The nature of Chillingworth's argument was more important than the way in which it was stated, and marked an epoch in English theology. His own experience led him to find certainty not in any dogmatic system, but in the use of his own reasoning powers, carefully trained and disciplined. What he had done for himself he was willing that others should also do for themselves, and he recognised that the result of each man's investigation would probably find a different expression according to his education, prejudices, and his moral earnestness. ”

“ His body was carried to Durham and was buried in the chapter-house according to his wish, amid the tears and lamentations of the monks.
The character of William de St. Carilef is puzzling. It is hard to reconcile the clever, selfish, unscrupulous statesman with the wise administrator and sagacious reformer of his diocese. He was probably a man whose cleverness was superficial, and did not go beyond the capacity to do what seemed obvious for the moment. At Durham his duty was tolerably clear, and he did it with sagacity and winning sympathy. He was beloved by his monks. ”

“ The writer's profound admiration for the conception of liberty which Englishmen had worked out for themselves, his full sympathy with the objects of popular aspiration, and the lofty tone of hopefulness for the future which ran through the book, gave it a moral and political value, besides its literary and historical merits. The book was immediately popular; its treatment was new, its tone fresh and vigorous, its style attractive, its arrangement clear; above all, it never halted, but carried on the reader with unabated enthusiasm. Green was in fact not only a scholar, but an artist ”

“ On his return to London, Surrey plunged into all the gaieties of life at court. He left his young wife unheeded in the country, because the queen did not like her favourites to be married. His reckless manner of life gave great concern to his maternal grandfather, the Earl of Arundel, and he ran into debt by his extravagance and by the entertainment which he gave to the queen at Kenninghall in 1578 (Nichols, Progresses of Elizabeth, ii. 130, 198) . ”

“ Sustained and dignified his argument moves steadily on; he is never captious nor sophistical; he never strains a point against his adversary, but overwhelms him by the massiveness of his learning and the loftiness of his intellectual attitude. Yet Chillingworth's learning never overmasters him, and there is no display of erudition ”

“ His groundwork is the history of Polydore Vergil, but he alters the point of view and adds a good deal from the floating knowledge of the citizens of London. It is for the early years of Henry VIII that he becomes an authority of the greatest value, not so much for the facts which he relates as for the light which he throws upon the social life and opinions of his times. He expresses the profound loyalty of the middle class, and represents the conditions which rendered possible the policy of the king. ”

“ The fulness of portraiture, the clearness of personal details, the graceful description, the reserve shown in drawing from memories of a time long past and outlived, give the book a distinction of its own, and place it high among English biographies. ”

“ At first Jewel complains of the slow progress made in clearing away popery; but his lamentations over the want of zeal and learning at the universities show the difficulty which Elizabeth experienced in finding men capable of holding office in the church who were at the same time in touch with popular feeling. The bishops were opposed to any change; the returned exiles desired more radical changes than the country was prepared for. There were no men of mark who stood midway between the two, and Elizabeth had to get rid of the existing bishops, and at the same time train their successors. ”

“ It is not surprising that men like Chillingworth and Falkland, who saw the hope of the future lie in the prevalence of right reason, should have shrunk before the immoderate pretensions of parliament and joined the king's side, in the interests of order and peace. ”

“ All this, however, was but preparatory to Chillingworth's great work, which was the result of accidental circumstances, and suffers from its accidental form. Rarely has a work of such importance been weighted by so much extraneous matter, for Chillingworth is not only answering an enemy, but defending a friend at the same time. ”

“ Bale was a man of great theological historical learning, and of an active mind. But he was a coarse and bitter controversialist and awakened equal bitterness amongst his opponents. None of the writers of the reformation time in England equalled Bale in acerbity. He was known as 'Bilious Bale.' His controversial spirit was a hindrance to his learning, as he was led away by his prejudices into frequent misstatements. ”

“ Norfolk is described by the Venetian ambassador, Falieri, in 1531 as ‘small and spare of stature and his hair black. He is prudent, liberal, affable, and astute; associates with everybody, has great experience in the administration of the kingdom, discusses affairs admirably, aspires to greater elevation’ (Venetian Calendar, iv. 294-5) . This was written when Norfolk, after Wolsey's death, seemed, as the chief of the English nobles, to be the destined successor of Wolsey; but it soon appeared that the Tudor policy was not of a kind which could be best carried out by nobles. ”

“ GAINSBOROUGH, WILLIAM (d. 1307) , bishop of Worcester, was a Franciscan, who is first known as the divinity lecturer of the Franciscans at Oxford. His position seems to have suggested to Edward I that he should be employed as an ambassador to Philip IV of France, with whom the English king wished to be at peace. With Gainsborough was joined Hugh of Manchester, a leading Dominican, the Bishop of Winchester, and two laymen. After their negotiations in France they were empowered to proceed to Rome and enlist the good offices of Pope Boniface VIII (Rymer, Fœdera, ii. 866) . ”

“ After leaving Cambridge Harington studied law at Lincoln's Inn, but not to much purpose, for his reputation as a wit and a man of the world was soon established, and he looked to court favour rather than the exercise of a profession. About 1584 he married Mary, daughter of Sir George Rogers of Cannington in Somerset, but marriage does not seem to have sobered his exuberant spirits. His epigrams began to pass current, and he enlivened the court by his sallies, which were not always adapted to a fastidious taste. ”

“ He showed his zeal for the advance of learning by building a library for the cathedral of Salisbury. He also used to maintain in his house and train for the university a few boys of promise. Among others whom he thus befriended was Richard Hooker, whom he educated at his expense and sent to Oxford. Hooker spoke of him as ‘the worthiest divine that Christendom had bred for some hundreds of years;’ and it is clear that Hooker learned from Jewel the method and fundamental principles which he afterwards employed with greater fervour and literary skill than his master. ”

“ After settling at Naworth, Howard brought an upright character, a sound judgment, and a cultivated mind to the work of restoring order and furthering civilisation in the wild districts of the borders. He lived in a patriarchal fashion with his sons and their wives and families. He improved his estates, encouraged agriculture, and strove to promote the well-being of the people. ”

“ When Henry went to war with France in 1544, Norfolk in spite of his age was appointed lieutenant-general of the army. The army besieged Montreuil, and, after a long siege, captured Boulogne, but Norfolk could claim no glory from the war. Again he found himself superseded in the royal favour by a powerful rival, the Earl of Hertford, whom he failed to conciliate by a family alliance which was proposed for his acceptance. Under the influence of his last queen (Catherine Parr) and the Earl of Hertford Henry VIII favoured the reforming party, and Norfolk's counsels were little heeded. ”

“ Her first step was to appoint a commission representing all parties to sit at York in October, and inquire into the cause of the variance between Mary and her subjects. Elizabeth's commissioners were the Duke of Norfolk, the Earl of Sussex, and Sir Ralph Sadler. Norfolk was doubtless appointed through his high position, as the only duke in England, and as the representative of the nobility, who urged that, if Elizabeth would not marry, the recognition of Mary's claim to the succession was inevitable; he was further likely to be acceptable to Mary herself. ”

“ Adrian IV's pontificate began with a disturbance. The Roman republicans fell upon a cardinal in the street and grievously wounded him. The pope showed his resoluteness by a measure which none of his predecessors had ventured to use. He laid Rome under an interdict. The citizens soon began to suffer from the cessation of pilgrims during Lent. As Easter drew near, they could endure no longer, and made submission to the pope. Arnold of Brescia was driven from Rome, and the pope consented to leave the Leonine city and celebrate Easter Day at the Lateran. ”

“ Many who were at first scandalised changed their opinion after a visit: ‘I find them full of humanity and humility’ is the testimony of one who was not disposed in their favour to begin with. To a visitor, Edward Lenton, Ferrar gave a reason for his retirement: ‘They had found divers perplexities, distractions, and almost utter ruin in their callings: if others knew what comfort God had ministered to them since their sequestration, they might take the like course’ (Mayor, Letter of Lenton, xxix.) ”

“ Want of supplies meant that peace was necessary, and in August Norfolk was appointed commissioner to treat for peace with France. When the war was over, the great question which occupied English politics was that of the king's divorce. Norfolk was entirely on the king's side, and waited with growing satisfaction for the course of events to bring about Wolsey's fall. He and the Duke of Suffolk did all they could to increase the king's anger against Wolsey, and enjoyed their triumph when they were commissioned to demand from him the great seal. ”

“ The only general principle laid down is, ‘We pray that all bondmen may be made free; for God made all free with his precious bloodshedding.’ There is no ground for finding in this rising any sympathy with the old form of the church; clerical residence and diligence in teaching are the only demands of a religious nature. ”

“ He was not interested in setting up the church of England against the church of Rome, but was contented to convince himself that a man, honestly in search of truth, could find it in the scriptures, and that no claims of infallibility could be maintained against the right of the enlightened conscience to bring everything to the test of learning and rational investigation. ”

“ There were two factions among the exiles; one, which was headed by Parsons and supported by Allen, looked to the help of Spain for the restoration of the Roman church in England; the other party, which represented the wishes of the Romanists in England, was opposed by the Spanish succession, and hoped to make terms with James VI of Scotland. Holt was a violent partisan of the Spanish faction, and made no endeavour to conciliate his opponents. So long as Allen lived he managed to exert a moderating influence, but after his death in 1594 Holt’s arbitrary character was left without a check. ”

“ When Lord John Russell came into power in 1846 he chose Grey as home secretary, a post which he continued to hold with slight interruption for nearly twenty years, and which he made his own as few ministers have ever done. Careful in action and moderate in speech, he never invited opposition. He never attempted to be smart, nor spoke with bitterness. Of tall and commanding figure, endued with genuine kindliness and genial manners, he was known to be a man of high character whose word could be implicitly trusted. ”

“ He took up the project of marrying Mary, because he believed that his position in England was a sufficient guarantee against all risks. He trusted to his personal popularity, and to the exertions of others. His first failure did not teach him wisdom. He probably supposed that he had not committed himself to Ridolfi or the Spanish ambassador; he had only allowed them to count on him for the time being. The highest testimony to his personal character is to be found in his letter to his children, written just after his trial (Wright, Queen Elizabeth and her Times, i. 402, &c.) ”

“ Boniface brought money and troops for the siege of Turin, and succeeded in procuring his brother’s release. During his absence he summoned a newly elected bishop of Ely to Belley for consecration—an unheard-of proceeding which led to a protest from the sukragaus of the province of Canterbury. In 1256 Boniface returned to England, and again behaved as though the air of England inspired him with a fictitious patriotism. He made common cause with the English bishops in withstanding the exactions of the pope and king. ”